今日 IMABI - Advanced I

It's important to understand that the bases will differ in appearance and slightly in usage depending on the part of speech. The parts of speech that have bases are those that can conjugate. Thus, we will be investigating verbs, adjectives, and auxiliaries. In this lesson, we consider タル形容動詞 as a separate part of speech as their set of bases is a special point of interest.

This is a lot of information condensed into one chart, so during the lesson individual examples from this chart will be discussed.  

The 未然形 literally translates into English as the "Irrealis Form". This comes from the Classical Japanese usage of making the ば hypothetical, which attached to the 未然形 for this meaning. So, you would get something like 急がば instead of 急げば. In fact, there are still several instances in Modern Japanese where this is allowed. For instance, 急がば is seen in the common set phrase 急がば回れ, which translates to "slow and steady wins the race". 

Remember that set phrases in any language are the most likely examples to find old-fashioned/archaic grammar. Yet, this example isn't the only example. In fact, whenever you use ～たらば or ～ならば, you are utilizing the 未然形＋ば.

The use of ～たら and ～なら in this fashion should be ungrammatical because as the chart above shows, they are the 未然形 of ～た and ～なり respectively. So, they should have an ending following them. As we should all know, though, languages evolve from errors. Now, they are deemed as particles because they have deviated from the rules. 

Examples 

1. 星になれたならば
    If you were able to become a star

2. できたら、見せてくれない？
     If you were able to, can't you show me? 

As this is the base of things not having realized, it is also followed by auxiliaries of intention/volition. For the volition, many items have a 未然形 sound change of /a/ to /o/.

3. 行こう！
    Let's go!

4a. そうでもなかろう。(ちょっと古風)
4b. そうでもないでしょう。(もっと自然) 
      It's probably not so. 

 する

する’s original 未然形's was せ-. As it is the original, you should expect it to be used with old auxiliaries such as ～ず・ぬ・ん. These are all forms of each other, so this makes it easier to remember. Other endings that have attached to the 未然形 in Classical Japanese have all been replaced with other speech modals or changed somehow (like the volitional endings and their current relationship sound-wise with the 未然形). 

5. 入会せずにはいられない。
    I can't help but join. 

6. 勉強せんと。　(ちょっと古風: 方言的)
    I have to study.  

The さ- variant in Modern Japanese is important for the forms される (passive) and させる (causative). However, in Classical Japanese you had せらる and せしむ respectively. So, the emergence of さ- comes about due the causative auxiliary さす. Essentially, the birth of させる was simultaneous with that of される. し- is paired with ～ない and the volitional ending ～よう. 

7. 誘惑された人
    A person that got lured

8. 喧嘩を売られたのはこっちのほうだ。
    The one who had been picked into the fight was [him].
From 混声の森  (下) by 松本清張. 

9. いや、そうさせはしないのだ。
    No, [I] won't make [you] do such.  

The 未然形 of 五段 verbs, 形容詞, 形容動詞, and some auxiliaries ends in /o-/.  

10. 新しかろうが古かろうが 
     Whether it's new or old

11. 今夜勉強しないでしょう。
      I probably won't study tonight.  

12. 息子にも理屈はあろう。 (ちょっと古風)
      His son must also have a reason. 
From 混声の森 (下)　by  松本清張.

 Adjective 未然形 + Negation

Though the 未然形 of adjectives has limited usage with the auxiliary ～う, which is also replaced with 終止形＋だろう, the old negative auxiliary ～ず attaches to the 未然形 of adjectives. Though this would mean any instances of this combination in Modern Japanese are old-fashioned, you will come across examples in literature.

13. いささか詩人らしからぬ月並みな表現である。
      It's a commonplace expression unbecoming of a poet. 

 Potential Verbs

Before Modern Japanese, there were no special conjugations for the potential such as 行ける for 行く. This came about from a very important sound change involving the auxiliary ～れる when attached to the 未然形 of 五段 verbs.

Motivation for this lies in the fact that ～れる is primarily used to make the passive voice for 五段 and サ変 verbs. It also has another major function of making light 敬語, which is crucially important for situations such as talking to one's boss's boss or elderly people.

14. どちらに行かれますか。  
      Where are you going?

15. シャコはカモメに食われた。
      The mantis shrimp was eaten by the sea gull.　 

How, then, did a whole new "conjugation" form? In Classical Japanese, Japanese actually didn't express "affirmative potential". Japanese culture has always placed value in being humble in regards to oneself. So, the means of expressing potential were used when expressing negative potential. The auxiliaries ～られる and れる  were ～らる and ～る respectively. So, cannot swim would have been expressed as 泳がれず. 

16. つゆまどろまれず。
      I couldn't doze even a little.
From the 更級日記. 

The 未然形 ～る was れ-, which is still the 未然形 of ～れる. Sometime during the Edo Period, "ar" in this potential pattern dropped. This renders 泳がれず as 泳げず. Though the changes in appearance of the negative and potential endings are separate events, this simple change that no doubt began as a colloquial contraction gave birth to fully independent potential verbs in the Japanese language.

Due to Western influence with many works being translated into Japanese, the 終止形 (final form) of the potential began being used, and with the large majority of verbs now having a fully functional independent form for the potential, it was perfect timing.

17. 手紙が書けず。
      I can't write the letter. 

In Modern Japanese, this is now being extended to 一段 verbs. So, things like 見られる is becoming 見れる. In another 50 years or so, this may be the fully standard way to make the potential for this verb class. This entire process, though, originates from just a simple adjustment to the rules of a conjugation involving the 未然形 because having the potential to do something doesn't mean you've done it yet.  

18. 何でも食べれるよ。
      You can eat anything.  

19. 見れますか。
      Can you see it? 

Many people like to refer to this special development in these verbs as the 可能形. After all, it's far more deviant than the 連用形 sound changes with ～た・て.

聞く　→　聞き-　(連用形) ＋ ～て　→　聞きて　→　(Drop K) 聞いて　　　　Still using the 連用形

聞く　→　聞か- (未然形) ＋ ～れる　→　聞かれる　→　(Drop ar) 聞ける　　　Still using the 未然形  

However, this doesn't work well with the base format as seen above. Bases apply to anything that conjugates. There is no doubt that the term 可能形 refers to this potential form phenomenon, but is it of the same vein as the 未然形, 連用形, etc.? No. If it were, everything that conjugates in the language would at least have the opportunity to have it.

Again, this is only a particular sound change of a process following the norm for a particular verb class. Furthermore, these resultant "potential verbs" have their own set of bases like any other verb. So, it is generally believed that these verbs should be treated as separate words that stem from the base verb, just as there are transitivity pairs in the language.

Transitivity pairs didn't exist in ancient forms of Japanese. So, the emerging of a new derivative of verbs should not be surprising in a historical sense. If anything, this has allowed the language to fix a major problem in battling ambiguity with other usages of the auxiliary ～れる.

はじむ　　(Old Japanese word for "to begin")　→　　　Modern Japanese: はじまる　(Intransitive)   　　   はじめる  (Transitive)

いづ　(Old Japanese word for "to go out") 　　　　　 　→　　　 Modern Japanse: 出る (Intransitive)
       出す (Transitive)
       出せる (Potential)

There is a mistaken logic in Japanese texts that the 可能形 is made by affixing (attaching) る to the equivalent of the 已然形, which is what is meant by sources that call it the "E Base" because of the vowel that it ends with for all instances. However, this is nonsensical. It may be an easy way to remember how to make it for 五段 verbs. But, it completely neglects what the "E Base ≒ 已然形” is used for. It also ignores the sound change. The non-abbreviated form of the process 未然形＋れる still has relevance in Modern Japanese. So, the downside that such an explanation brings is the watering down and unintended omission of important information to the student.   

The purpose of the 連用形 is to show that an action/process is either taking place or has already taken place. Thus, it is often followed by auxiliaries such as ～た. Conjunctive particles such as て, つつ, and ながら also follow it to indicate continuation. This is by far the most used base in Japanese conjugation. Further important usages include the 連用中止形 and making compound verbs.

20. 食卓に焜炉を置いて鍋を囲み、楽しく語らいながら食事ができる。
You can have a dinner while enjoying eating and talking sitting around the pot on the konro [stove] on the dining table.  

This sentence has several usages of the 連用形. You see it with て and the verb 置く, in the 連用中止形 with the verb 囲む, used as an adverb with the adjective 楽しい, and with the ながら with the verb 語る. 

One of the most difficult aspects of the 連用形 are sound changes and multiple ones for certain items. A lot has changed in regards to the base. Consider the chart below which shows how it has changed. 文語 stands for Classical Japanese and 口語 stands for Modern Japanese. 

This base marks the end of a sentence. This is very important. Everything that conjugates has a 終止形. It normally expresses the non-past tense unless there is a tense item involved. What it looks like is quite straightforward as it is equivalent to the 辞書形.

21. 左に曲がる。  (左に曲がれという意味)
Turn left.

Grammar Note: Some times, the 終止形 in context may be used to instruct someone to do something.  

Recently in the history of Japanese, the 連体形 merged with the 終止形, causing the latter to look like the former for many things. For instance, the 終止形 of する used to be す, and the 連体形 was する. This also effected some auxiliaries. For instance, べし → べきだ, ず →　ぬ. 

Though in Modern Japanese completely identical in appearance to the 終止形 for most conjugatable items, it is syntactically extremely different. The 連体形 is the attributive form, which is used in Modern Japanese to solely modify nominal phrases.

22. きれいな字
      Pretty handwriting 

23. ずいぶんひどい内容
      Quite horrible content/matter 

24. もう宿題を出したんです。
      I've already turned in my homework. 

An issue that comes up a lot is students not realizing that verb phrases can modify sentences. There are even particle restrictions that come along with it. For instance, an embedded clause must never have the topic particle は unless there is a citation particle like と・って. Some make the mistake of finding the first が and assuming it's the subject, despite the fact that that is not always the case because of this fact.  

25. 

要旨 ( ようし ) は、[ 謙一 ( けんいち ) が長い間専務理事の 椅子 ( いす ) に 坐 ( すわ ) って学園の管理を 壟断 ( ろうだん ) している]こと、[会計に不正がある]こと、[それを理事会の席で大島に指摘されて謙一が 狼狽 ( ろうばい ) した]こと、つづいて[彼が次の理事長の椅子を 狙 ( ねら ) い 画策 ( かくさく ) している]ことなどであった。
The gist was that Ken'ichi has been sitting in the seat of the executive director for a long time and has been monopolizing on the management of the academy, has made a wrong in the accounting, and that that was pointed out in the board meeting by Ohshima and Ken'ichi was bewildered, and counting on, he was scheming for the seat of the next board chairman. 
From 混声の森 (下) by 松本清張.

Sentence Note: The brackets indicate the long attributes phrases, and the 連体形 have been put in bold.  

The 已然形 literally means "the already-realized form". This comes from the fact that in Classical Japanese, the particle ば would be used with it to mean "because; when". Thus, this grammar point has changed significantly. It is also used with the particle ど(も), which means although.

26. あかつきより雨降れば  
      Since it had been raining since early morning
From the 土佐日記.

27. エリスは 床 ( とこ ) に 臥 ( ふ ) すほどにはあらねど、小さき 鉄炉 ( てつろ ) のほとりに椅子さし寄せて言葉少なし。
Ellis wasn't to the point of being bedridden, but she lied on a chair near a small iron furnace and had little to say.
By 鷗外 ( おうがい ) . 

              You also see it used in the pattern こそすれ. In Modern Japanese grammar, it is sometimes called the 仮定形 (the hypothetical form) due to how the particle ば is now used. Nevertheless, the original name generally stands. 

28. 男女の違いこそあれ、二人は 瓜 ( うり ) 二つだね。
      Of course they have their differences as man and woman, but they're like two peas in a pod. 

The 命令形 is the imperative form, which creates a command. There are many ways to make commands in Japanese, but this is the core way to. It isn't difficult to make an imperative, but it is difficult to use these phrases--with the ultimate goal to request something--like native speakers would.

Construction Note: Making the 命令形 is relatively easy. As we have already studied how to construct it, please refer back to the chart at the beginning of this lesson. 

Curriculum Note: As there is already a lesson about the 命令形, every point mentioned here is meant to be summarization and not intense dissection.  

In Modern Japanese, the 命令形 is typically very stern and powerful. It is semantically impossible for it to be used with the past tense.

Examples

29. こっちに来い！
      Come here! 

30. 手を挙げろ！
      Hands up! 

31. あんたのいいようにしてくれ。 (Vulgar)
      Do as is good for you.  

32. ゴミを投げるな。
      Don't throw trash! 

33. 金を出せ！　　　
      Hand over money!

One can easily see a bank robber saying 金を出せ or a soldier yelling 手を挙げろ. It's not that stern commands are never used. It's just that from a productive standpoint, you should understand that its use is limited. Experience as to when the 命令形 is used is the best solution to not sound rude. There are plenty of other ways to get your point across about wanting something done.

34. 息子は、相手の家に謝りに行けという考えに反抗している。
      His son was against his thought of going to apologize to his opponent's house.
From 混声の森 by 松本清張.　 

Grammar Note: In this instance, the command form is in quotations. Though there is a 上下関係 between the father and son, the 命令形 is used in this fashion a lot. 

35. 一生懸命勉強しろといわれた。
      I was told to study as hard as possible.  

 話者　VS 聴者

In studying more about the 命令形, we need to examine the relation between the 話者 (speaker) and 聴者 (listener). Inequality signs will demonstrate which side has the most power/influence. An equal sign would mean that they're equal in this regard.

話者　＞　聴者話者　＝　聴者話者　＜　聴者 

In the first situation, the speaker has more authority on the choice of action than the listener. There is no place for the speaker to decide what to do. In the second situation, the speaker allows for the action, and the listener has the power to consent to it or not interfere with it. In the third section, even if the speaker makes a request for the listener to do something, the listener has the power to decide. Thus, the speaker ends up making a suggestion or some sort of advice/aspiration. 

With each of these situations, you can replace the 命令形 with various synonymous expressions. For instance, in the first relation, you could see ～なければならない or ～なさい. In the second situation, you could use ～ていい. In the third, ～た方がいい could be used instead. Though there are slight differences, relating the 命令形 with these patterns for the three broad situations it is used in will help you a lot in understanding it.  

36. 黙って出されたものを食べろ。　　　　　(話者　＞  聴者)
     食べろ　→　食べなさい　　 
     Shut up and eat what's been given to you!

37. これを飲め。 (話者　＝　聴者) 
      飲め　→　飲んで（も）いい
      Drink this.

38. 一時間幸せになりたかったら酒を飲め，三日間幸せになりたかったら結婚しろ，一週間幸せになりたかったら豚を殺して食べろ，一生幸せになりたかったら釣りを覚えろ。
命令形　→　～た方がいい
If you want to become happy for an hour, drink; if you want to be happy for three days, get married; if you want to be happy for a week, kill a pig and eat it; if you want to be happy for a lifetime, learn how to fish.   (話者 ＜ 聴者)
A Quote from 開高健.

The notes after the example signify that the 命令形 could be paraphrased out. 

命令形 Studies 

Studying the 命令形 also interests Japanese grammarians. The 命令形 has been given many names. Some include 放任形 (non-interference form) and 命令法. However, is the word 命令 the most appropriate word? 

One interesting usage that is typically not mentioned is that the 命令形 is the chosen command pattern for decrees in law. Related to this is the usage of it by bosses.  

39. 止まれ
      Stop!

This is the Japanese traffic lingo equivalent to "STOP" on stop signs. This shows an imperative and obligation to motorists and pedestrians to stop.  

 In 敬語

This has all been in regards to non-敬語 situations. There are things such as ～なさい and ～ませ that have different social implications that you need to pay close attention to. 

40. いらっしゃいませ。  
      Welcome!

This usage, for example, is a very important set phrase that you hear all the time when entering businesses and restaurants. 

41. 勉強しなさい。
      Study!

This is something that you would hear a stern parent tell his child. Again, just as is the case in English, social dynamics play a crucial rule in how commands of any kind are perceived. As you have surely seen a lot of Japanese by now, this shouldn't be hard to understand.  

Verbs in the 連用形 can be very noun-like. Whether the result is actually a true-noun, a limited noun, or rarely like a noun shouldn't distract us from noting how verbs in this form can clearly deviate from a truly verbal meaning.

First, let’s assume that a lot of verbs can at least be noun-like in some contexts. We can see at least five different types of resultant noun phrases.

1.  Those that are so completely independent from the verb that they are separate words in the lexicon (vocabulary of the language).
2. Those that are independent in the sense that they can stand alone as a noun in a sentence without the aid of context or additional words.
   
3. Those that may stand alone as a noun but need contextual support through phrasing to make sense.
4. Those that need to be in a compound to function properly as a noun phrase.
5. Those that are found in constructions like 連用形＋に＋Motion verb in which the noun-like phrase is too verbal to be considered a true noun phrase.

Our example verb for this category is 光 (light). Although its meaning of radiance in 目の光 gets closer to its verb roots, if we were to say 〇が光り〇, we would treat 光り as a verb phrase in the 連用形. This difference between hikari and hikar-i suggests that the first comes from the second, but it has lost its literal connection to the verb 光る. The second clearly has not and is merely a form of the latter. In spelling, we distinguish the two for this verb, but that won’t always be a guarantee.

If the verb in which the noun comes from has disappeared, then it becomes even clearer how independent the noun is from its verbal root. Some examples including the following.

霧 ( きり )  (mist): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb 霧る meaning “to mist”

相撲 ( すもう )  (sumo wrestling): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb 争（すま）ふ meaning to fight.

歌舞伎 ( かぶき )  (Kabuki theatre): Comes from the 連用形 of the old verb かぶく meaning “to tilt (one’s head)”.

Another interesting example is the verb 歌う. We find that there are two nouns derived from it: 歌 and 謡い. The 漢字 have the same reading here, but the words うた and うたい have different meanings. The first can mean song or even poem (though when meant to mean poem it is often spelled as 詩). You may even see the character 唄 to refer to a song akin to a lullaby. The latter, 謡い, refers specifically to Noh song. We see that the latter clearly comes from the 連用形. At first glance, it seems that 歌 is from the root of the verb. In reality, it is probably from the contraction of うたい.  

This is a less drastic form of Type 1. For 連用形 of this type, it can be used like any other noun grammatically. It needs no context to be understood in isolation as a noun phrase with a specific meaning. This does not mean that the 連用形 can be used verbally. So, we could say that 光 may belong here.

Many verbs regarding psychological and emotional state are represented here as well as human cognitive activities, speech acts, and actions regarding expression.

1. ほとんどの 臓器 ( ぞうき ) が日ごろ休みなく働き続けています。　（休む）
    Almost all of your organs continue to work nonstop on a normal basis.

2. 疲 つか れを感じたときは、自分の体が「休んで！」と言っているサインです。　（疲れる）
    When you've felt fatigue, that's a sign from your body telling you "to take a rest!".

3. 薬と死の 匂 ( にお ) いがする場所から 逃 ( のが ) れる。　　　（匂う）
   To escape from a place with the smell of medicine and death. 

4. ISISの 狙 ( ねら ) いはシリアとイラクの 国境 ( こっきょう ) 地帯 ( ちたい ) にイスラム国家を 樹立 ( じゅりつ ) するところにあります。　（狙う）
    The aim of ISIS is to establish an Islamic State in the border region between Syria and Iraq. 

5. エジプト 市民 ( しみん ) の 望 ( のぞ ) みは 叶 ( かな ) うのか。　（望む）
     Will the hopes of the Egyptian people be fulfilled?

6. 新しい 知ら せを伝える。　（知らせる）
    To inform on a new notice.

7.  魔女 まじょ は 森永家 もりながけ 全員 ぜんいん に 呪 のろ いをかけた。　（呪う）
    The witch put a curse on all of the Morinaga family.

8. 川の流れに 沿 ( そ ) って泳ぐ。　（流れる）
     To swim along the current of the river. 

9. 難読 なんどく 漢字 かんじ の読みを覚える 方法 ほうほう を教えてくれませんか。　（読む）
    Could you teach me methods to remember the readings of difficult to read Kanji? 

10. どうしても何時間も 怒 ( いか ) りが 収 ( おさ ) まらない。　（怒る）
      (My/X's) anger won't simmer down for hours no matter what. 

Even though these are clearly nouns, they still individually can have odd restrictions.

11a. きょうは仕事で疲れたなあ。〇
11b. きょうの仕事は疲れたなあ。〇・△
11c. きょうの働きは疲れだったなあ。　X　　（働く & 疲れる） 

In this example, we see a major restriction on 働き and 疲れ. Even when you replace them with the correct words, the grammar is still off. This demonstrates how semantic and syntactic restrictions work in unison to form natural utterances like 11a. Take into consideration Ex. 12, which demonstrates the most natural and common use of 行き as a suffix. 

12. 日本 にほん 行 ゆき の 飛行機 ひこうき に乗る。　　（行く　＝　ゆく）
      To ride a plain bound for Japan. 

Many verbs need context to be used independently. The point here is at least they can be stand-alone nouns. They just need help to make any sense. Consider Ex. 13-14. 

13a. 泳ぎは体にいいですね。X　　（泳ぐ）
13b. 泳ぐことは体にいいですね。〇
        Swimming is good for you. 

14. やっぱり魚は泳ぎが速いね。　（泳ぐ）
      Fish are definitely fast at swimming. 

Ex. 13 demonstrates how if you give the wrong sort of help, you get a bad sentence. Many examples of this are found in set idiomatic phrases. Some require a XはYが structure to appear whereas others simply want a subject attribute. The requirements to have these sort of nouns work varies a lot, which is why the mastery of this type is going to very difficult. You have to in a sense get used to how Japanese phrases things, which is not an easy task.

15a. 高まりを感じる。X　　　　（高まる）
15b. 心の高まりを感じる。〇
        To feel an emotional high. 

16. 彼は 分 ( ) かりが 遅 ( おそ ) い。　　（分かる）
      He's a slow learner.

17. 画面 がめん の 映 うつ りが悪いですね。　　（映る）
      The quality of the screen is bad, isn't it?

18. エンジンのかかりが 遅 ( おそ ) い。　　（かかる）
      The engine starts up slowly. 

19.   庖丁 ほうちょう がなまって切れが悪くなった。　　（切れる）
       The kitchen knife has gotten dull and doesn't cut well. 

20. 神経の 伝 ( つた ) わりを 遮断 ( しゃだん ) することで痛みを 和 ( やわ ) らげる 治療 ( ちりょう ) です。　　（伝わる）
     This is a treatment to alleviate pain by circumventing neural transmissions. 

21. 内臓 ないぞう は 腐 くさ りが早い。　（腐る）
      Innards rot quickly. 

21. エアコンの 効 ( き ) きが悪い。　（効く）
      The air conditioning doesn't work well. 

22. 今年はピーマンの 出来 ( でき ) がイマイチですよ。　（出来る）
      The pepper turnout this year is not that good. 

23. 喫煙 きつえん などは、 血 ち の 巡 めぐ りを悪くする 主 おも な 原因 げんいん である。　（巡る）
      Smoking and the like is a major factor in worsening blood circulation. 

24. 細長く 粘 ( ねば ) りのない 米 ( こめ ) に 馴染 ( なじ ) む。　　（粘る）
     To get to non-sticky thin rice. 

25. 枝 えだ が 湿 しめ っていて、 焚 た き 火 び の 燃 も えが悪い。　　（燃える）
      The branches are damp, and so the bonfire's flame is bad. 

The next group requires compounding. Do not think, though, that words can't be in more than one category. Rather, we must truly investigate individual meanings of a word to determine what type it belongs to. For example, 出汁 ( だし ) (soup stock) comes from 出す and would be an example of Type 1. Aside from this, 出し needs to be in a compound like ゴミ出し to work as a noun.

Because of this required compounding, you do sometimes get sequential voicing.

26. プロでも 雪下 ( ゆきお ) ろしは 困難 ( こんなん ) です。　　（下ろす）
      Removing snow is even difficult for professionals.

27. 江戸 えど 時代 じだい の根付を 相続 そうぞく する。　　（付ける）
      To inherit netsuke from the Edo Period. 

Item Note: Netsuke are small miniature carvings that are placed at the end of cords hanging from a pouch of some sort.  

28.  木造 もくぞう 2階建てが 全焼 ぜんしょう しました。　　（建てる）
      The wooden, two-story structure completely burned up. 

29. 2014年の 梅雨入 ( つゆい ) りは6月8日と言われています。　　（入る　＝　いる）
      They say that the start of 2014's rainy season was June, 8th.  

30. 数字 すうじ 合 あ わせ 錠 じょう を使うのが 便利 べんり です。　　（合わせる）
      Using a number combination lock is convenient. 

31. 昼寝のあとに 頭痛 ( ずつう ) がします。　　（寝る）
      I have headaches after an afternoon nap. 

32. 失策 しっさく の 穴埋 あなう めを国民に求める。　　（埋める）
      To seek the patching of a failed policy from the people. 

33.  鮭 さけ と 野菜 やさい をごちゃ 混 ぜにして焼きます。　　（混ぜる）
      We mix salmon and vegetables together and cook them.

34. 結婚の話が立ち 消 ( ぎ ) えになった。　　（消える）
      The talk of marriage fizzled away.

35. 人々の行き来が 賑 ( にぎ ) やかだった。　　（来る）
      The coming and going of people was lively.

連用形　→　Noun →　する Verb 

At times, a noun made in this way may attach to another noun, but to be used verbally again, it needs to become a verb by adding する, which will be introduced shortly. As we haven't gone over how to conjugate this verb yet, we'll just look at some examples of this phenomenon. Consider the following words.

Part of Speech Note: The あら in 粗探し is actually from the stem of the adjective 粗い (rough/coarse).  

In the grammar pattern 連用形＋に＋Motion Verb plus a few other instances we’ll see later on in Japanese grammar, verbs that do or don’t fall in the categories above are able to be used like nouns while simultaneously holding onto their verbal meaning.

If you want to say things like “I am going to watch the movie”, you must use this grammar pattern. The Japanese for this is 私は映画を見に行きます. The grammar is very parallel to English. In both languages, we would never call the verb a noun, per say. However, it certainly behaves like one in this situation.

If the verb is a する verb made by putting する after a Sino-Japanese word, then you don’t even need し. So, say you want to say, I’m going to observe at Kyoto University. You could say 京都大学を見学しに行きます. However, you could just say 京都大学を見学に行きます. Either way is grammatically fine.

Examples 

36. 私は一人でイチゴを探しに歩きました。
　　 I walked to search for strawberries by myself.

37.  慌 ( あわ ) てて 荷物 ( にもつ ) を取りに 戻 ( もど ) った。  
　　 I rushed to return to get my luggage.

38. 彼は遊びに来た。
      He came to play.

39.  相談 ( そうだん ) （し）に来る。
       To come to discuss.

40. 買い 物 ( もの ) に行く。
      To go shopping.

Sentence Note: 買い物をする is the verb phrase! 

Phrase Note: ～物 attaches to the  連用形 ( れんようけい )  of verbs of type 4 to refer to the things that you do the action with. So, 飲み物 = drink, 食べ物 = food, and 読み物 = reading (material).

41.  僕 ( ぼく ) らは 映画 ( えいが ) を見に来たよ。
      We came to see a movie.

42.  晩 ( ばん ) ご 飯 ( はん ) を食べに来ませんか。
      Will you come to eat dinner?

43.  妻 ( つま ) はハンドバッグを 取 ( ) りに帰った。
       My wife went home to go get her handbag.

Instead of using the particle て, there is also a method called the 連用中止形. This is when you use the 連用形 but attach nothing to it, and in doing so, it functions like the particle て. This was in fact the original way. However, no two methods in Japanese evolve without differences emerging as well. 

One of the first problems with using the 連用形 is that most learners don't know what it is. Even though by now you should know exactly what it is, here is a reminder.

When you use いる in this grammatical pattern, you have to use おり, which is the 連用形 of its humble form おる. You should not use the 連用形 い. However, in older works, you do find ～てい instead of ～ており.

1. また、これまでに１８万人が住まいを追われ、このうち７万５０００人が各地にある国連のＰＫＯ＝平和維持活動の施設に避難しており、国連は安全の確保や人道支援に全力を挙げているとしています。
Also, there have been 180,000 people driven from their dwellings, and of these, 75,000 have evacuated to UN PKO (Peacekeeping Operations) facilities, and the UN are putting all forces to human aid and safety security.   
From the NHK Article 南スーダン緊張 ７万人以上が避難 on December 31, 2013. 

2. 出来た。出来ないにしろ、二人がお互いに愛してい、女が自分の存在に無頓着ならば、自分はどうすることも出来なかったにちがいない。
I was able to do it. Even if I couldn't, the two love each other, and had the women been indifferent to my own existence, there is no doubt that I wouldn't have been able to do anything.
From 友情 by 武者小路実篤. 

Though more common in literature, due to the fact that they are two morae verbs, 見る, 寝る, and 来る are not near as common in this. This, though, is keeping in mind mediums such as very formal speech where this grammar structure is seen in the spoken language. As this is mainly 書き言葉, the frequency of any verb in this is determined by the refinement and formality of the language used. For instance, the Bible has a plethora of examples of the 連用中止形.

3. わたしは一つの事を主に願った。わたしはそれを求める。わたしの生きるかぎり、主の家に住んで、主のうるわしきを見、その宮で尋ねきわめることを。
I desired one thing from the Lord; that I sought. For as long as I live, may I dwell in the house of the Lord, look upon his beauty, and seek him in his temple.
From 詩篇 しへん 第二七章四節 口語訳

Again, instead of ～て, you can just use the 連用形, which is quite literary. Verbs and adjectives may be used in this way. It sounds more refined, and is often used in songs and poems. 

4. 本を｛読んで・読み｝、しばらく考える。 
    To think awhile from reading a book. 

5. 街中は人も少なく（て）、たまに車が通り過ぎるだけだった。
    There were few people downtown and cars only occasionally passed by.

However, to truly investigate the interchangeability of the two, you need to know what て does and then see if there are any usages that can't be expressed with the 連用中止形. ～て, as has been seen in previous lessons, can be used to show successive action, ancillary/incidental conditions, cause/reason, and parallelism. The points of contingency involve ancillary conditions and cause/reason.

6a. 食べすぎて、お腹が痛い。〇
6b. 食べすぎ, お腹が痛い。　〇/?

7a. 座って話す。〇
7b. 座り、話す。X

In the first example, not using て means not establishing a cause-effect relationship. Rather, you end up just showing successive action.

Although using the 連用中止形 for showing successive action, it causes the sentence to sound very segmented, which may very well be how you want to express something, which can be seen in the first example. Though, in more spoken statements, it is more natural to mix it with て.

8. 過去を忘れ、職を探し、社員になり、私の生活は立派になりました。
I forgot the past, I looked for a job, I became a company employee, and my way of life became amazing.

9. お母さんは雑誌を読み、コーヒーを飲んで、出かけた。
    My mother read a magazine, drank coffee, and left.

              Consider the following bad sentence where て is the problem rather than the 連用中止形.

10a. 日本列島に初めて独自の文化を生み出した 縄文人 ( じょうもんじん ) は 狩人 ( かりゅうど ) であって、 漁夫 ( ぎょふ ) だった。X
10b. 日本列島に初めて独自の文化を生み出した縄文人は狩人であり、漁夫だった。〇
The Jomon people who were the first in the Japanese islands to first form their own culture were farmers and fishermen. 

This is the case because て borders sounding like it shows a contrast. To keep であって, it would have been best to have a just as equally complex latter clause that balances out the meaning of the first. The use of the 連用中止形 has no such problem and nicely segments the two properties in a formal fashion.

11.  太股 ふともも の上で握り 拳 こぶし を作っていた信人は、切ない気持ちで、 上目遣 うわめづか いに上司を見た。
Nobuto, who had made a fist on top her thighs, looked with an upward glance and saddened emotion at her boss.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.

Article from NHK

           As stated earlier, one of the most common places you can find the 連用中止形 used is in writing. News articles utilize this pattern a lot. Notice how it is used in concert with て in the following article from NHK.

12. 

元同級生を車内でも 暴行 ( ぼうこう ) か
7月19日 4時20分
広島県 呉市 くれし の山中に元同級生とみられる遺体を 遺棄 いき したとして広島市の１６歳の少女と知り合いの男女ら６人が 逮捕 たいほ された事件で、７人の一部は山中に向かう車の中で、元同級生を押さえつけ、暴行を繰り返していたとみられることが警察への取材で分かりました。
警察は初めから暴行を加えるつもりで元同級生を車で連れ出した疑いがあるとみて 捜査 そうさ を進めています。
今月１４日、広島県呉市の山中に、 高等専修 こうとうせんしゅう 学校の元同級生の１６歳の少女とみられる遺体を遺棄したとして警察に 自首 じしゅ した広島市の１６歳の少女が逮捕され、１７日、 鳥取県 とっとりけん 湯梨浜町 ゆりはまちょう の無職、 瀬戸大平 せとおおひら 容疑者（２１）と、１６歳の無職の男女５人が死体遺棄の疑いで逮捕されました。
警察の調べに対し瀬戸容疑者は容疑を否認し、ほかの６人は容疑を認めているということです。
これまでの調べで７人が、元同級生を車に乗せて現場の山中に行き、車を降りたあと、集団で暴行を加えたと供述していることが分かっていて、警察は使われたとみられる車を１８日夜、 押収 おうしゅう しました。その後の警察の調べで、７人の一部は、現場へ向かう車の中で、元同級生を押さえつけて 殴 なぐ ったり 蹴 け ったりする暴行を繰り返していたとみられることが警察への取材で分かりました。
元同級生への暴行が山中に着く前の車内から続いていることから、警察は、初めから暴行を加えるつもりで元同級生を車で連れ出した疑いがあるとみて捜査を進めています。 

Assaulting of Former Classmate also Inside Car?
July 19^th, 4:20
It has been found out through police investigation that in the case in which a 16 year old girl and 6 men and women acquaintances from Hiroshima City were arrested for the abandonment of the body of a former classmate in the mountains of Hiroshima Prefecture Kure City, a group of 7 people inside a car towards the mountainside suppressed the former classmate, and repeatedly assaulted her. The police are furthering investigation into the suspicion that [the group] had taken the former student into the car with plans to assault her from the beginning.      
This month on the 14^th, a 16 year old girl who surrendered herself to police for the abandonment of the body in the mountains of Hiroshima Prefecture Kure City of a former 16 year old female student at [their] vocational high school was arrested, and on the 17^th, unemployed 21 year old resident of Tottori Prefecture Yurihama Town Seto Ohira and 5 unemployed 16 year old men and women were arrested for suspicion in the body abandonment.
Suspect Ohira denies claims from the police, but the 6 others have confessed.
In investigation up to now, it’s understood that the 7 people are testifying that they put the former classmate into the vehicle, went to the scene in the mountains, and after getting off the vehicle, they group assaulted [her], and the police on the 18^th seized the car thought to be used. In police investigation afterward, it has been found out from reports to the police that the group of 7 suppressed the former classmate inside the car towards the scene and repeatedly assaulted her by beating and kicking her.

In light of the the continuation of assault to their former classmate inside the vehicle before having reached the mountains, the police are furthering investigation into the charge that [the group] had brought the former student in the vehicle with plans to assault from the beginning.

In its basic understanding, the auxiliary verb -TA stands for the past tense, especially when it is in a mono-clausal sentence (a sentence with a single clause) in isolation from other grammatical circumstances. This can be demonstrated with the following examples.

1a. 私 ( わたし ) はきのう、 登山 ( とざん ) をしました。〇
1b. 私 ( わたし ) はきのう、 登山 ( とざん ) をします。X
I mountain climbed yesterday.

2a. 細 ( こま ) かいことは 明日発表 ( あすはっぴょう ) します。〇
2b. 細 ( こま ) かいことは 明日発表 ( あすはっぴょう ) しました。X
I will announce the fine details tomorrow.

These sentences demonstrate a basic understanding of what non-past and past tense are in Japanese, but they ignore the other varied nuances and situations that both forms can represent. This is because mono-clausal sentences like these only make up a small percentage of the complexity that can be found in the language.

Whenever you read a book or listen to speakers talk, you will notice that -TA and -RU/U (the morphemes used in the ‘non-past’ form) alternate from one to the other, and you’ll also notice that they often deviate far away from the concept of tense-agreement found in English. One grammatical circumstance that negates the notion that these endings are fixated to one tense is the creation of conditionals.

3. ドアを 開 ( あ ) けたら、 必 ( かなら ) ず 閉 ( し ) めてください。
If you open the door, please make sure to close it.

4. ドアを 開 ( あ ) けると、コウモリが 入 ( はい ) ってきた。
When I opened the door, a bat came inside.

Seeing as how the tense in both the dependent clauses of 3 and 4 are the same in English, the fact that there is this dichotomy between -TA and -RU/U is perplexing. Never will you see 開けるら, and never will you see 開けたと. One way to explain this is that Japanese makes a distinction between foreground and background circumstances. When something happens/is so in the background, it usually or must take -RU/U. This means that for 4, the door opening is a pretext for the bat having entered the home. The door is presumably open when the bat enters, and so that clause takes -RU. The bat entering is at the foreground of the sentence and thus takes -TA. In 3, the action of having opened the door is at the foreground when you get to closing it back shut. Therefore, it takes -TA. These examples demonstrate a need to analyze these endings far more closely.

First, we will study the individual usages of -TA. Then, in the next lesson we’ll study the individual usages of -RU/U. By doing so, you'll see how they both heavily reflect the speaker’s intent rather than follow concrete rules, which inevitably means that context must be looked at. Instead of having the decision between the two be mechanical based on a handful of criteria, deciding between the two often relies on a feel for the situation--pragmatics. As we study these forms, think about the dynamics that could change how you interpret them--time, voice (narrator versus self), state, etc.  

Notation Note: For this lesson and the one that follows, the forms -RU/U, -TA, -TE IRU, and -TE ITA will be Romanized as such due to the technical nature of the discussion at hand. Although this lesson focuses on -TA, it also makes note usages of these other forms due to their similarities.

Terminology Note:

1. A morpheme is a meaningful unit of language that cannot be further divided.
2. The copula is also treated as being grammatically equal to -RU/U. All references to -RU/U, therefore, will also apply to it. The non-past forms of adjectives also count as being in the -RU/U form. 

The auxiliary verb -TA comes from the conjunctive particle てcombined with the existential verb あり (Modern ある). At this time, it took the form たり and served to either show completion or continuation. Meaning, it was equivalent to either てしまった or てある・ている. Both these two meanings survive in their respective capacities in Modern Japanese. The large reason for why -TA has taken on so many meanings was that there were several other endings for aspect that collapsed into -TA over time.

-TA attaches to the 連用形 of conjugatable parts of speech. The bases of -TA—both classical and modern—are shown below:

As implied by the chart, the particle たり is the continuative form ( 連用形 れんようけい ) of -TA. Also, the particle たら is treated as the hypothetical form ( 仮定形 かていけい ) of -TA. Additionally, note how -TA has an imperative form. This will be one of the many usages discussed.

1. The most basic meaning of -TA is to demonstrate a situation that has happened (past tense) or has been completed (perfect tense) in the past. The nature of the act/event must be assessed by the context at hand to determine whether -TA denotes a past and/or perfect tense interpretation.

1a. In English, the past tense is made by adding –(e)d to the base form of the verb. Its function is to talk about the past. The “past simple” form is simply the verb + -(e)d and nothing more. The “past continuous/progressive” form, which denotes a continuing action which began in the past, involves the pattern “was + verb + -ing.”

i. I worked. →　 私 ( わたし ) は 働 ( はたら ) きました。(Past Simple)
ii. I was working. → 私 ( わたし ) は 働 ( はたら ) いていました。 (Past Continuous)

Both -TA and -TE ITA can indicate past events/states whose duration was long. However, -TA does not explicitly denote duration of a past event.

5. 生徒 ( せいと ) たちが 実験 ( じっけん ) を 行 ( おこな ) いました。 (Past Simple)
The students conducted an experiment.

6. 大雨洪水警報 ( おおあめこうずいけいほう ) が 発表 ( はっぴょう ) された。(Past Simple + Passive)
A storm-flood warning was announced.

7. 私 ( わたし ) も 話 ( はな ) していました。 (Past Continuous/Progressive)
I was also speaking.

8a. 彼 ( かれ ) が 戦争 ( せんそう ) に 対 ( たい ) する 思 ( おも ) いを 語 ( かた ) った。
8b. 彼が戦争に対する思いを語っていました。
He spoke of his thoughts towards war. (9a)
He was speaking of his thoughts towards war. (9b)

1b. The perfect tenses are created by using the appropriate tense of the auxiliary verb “to have”—or “got”—plus the past participle of a verb.

iii.  I have worked.  →　 働 ( はたら ) いたことがあります。(Present Perfect)
iv. I had worked. → （かつて） 働 ( はたら ) いていました。(Past Perfect/Pluperfect)
v. I will have worked. → それまでに 働 ( はたら ) いたでしょう。(Future Perfect)

The present perfect is used to denote a past event that has occurred and been completed in the past yet has consequences in the present. In iii., the present consequence is that one has a work history. Similarly, the present progressive perfect is used to denote an action that has occurred up to the present and may continue.

9. アメリカ 政府 ( せいふ ) が 北朝鮮 ( きたちょうせん ) に 対 ( たい ) して 挑発行為 ( ちょうはつこうい ) をやめるよう 改 ( あらた ) めて求めた。(Present Perfect)
The American government has once again requested that North Korea stop its provocations.

10. 受取人 ( うけとりにん ) が 既 ( すで ) に 死亡 ( しぼう ) していた 場合 ( ばあい ) (Present Perfect)
In the case the recipient has already died/is already deceased

11. 彼はその 秘密 ( ひみつ ) をずっと 隠 ( かく ) していた！ (Present Progressive Perfect)
He has been hiding that secret the whole time!

12 うまく 成長 ( せいちょう ) したね。
You’ve sure grown, huh.

13. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) は 背 ( せ ) が 高 ( たか ) くなった。 (Simple Past/Present Perfect)
She became tall/has become tall.

14.いつの 間 ( ま ) にか 声 ( こえ ) が 低 ( ひく ) くなった。(Present Perfect)
My voice got deep before I knew it.

-TE IRU may also express the present perfect if the state the action brings about is ongoing. This, though, can and is most often expressed with -TA when modifying nouns.

15. 停電 ( ていでん ) が 広 ( ひろ ) い 範囲 ( はんい ) で 発生 ( はっせい ) している。
A blackout has occurred over a wide extent (and is still ongoing).

16. 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) な 形 ( かたち ) をした 建物 ( たてもの ) が 並 ( なら ) んでいる。
Buildings in mysterious shapes are lined up.

The past perfect/pluperfect is used to denote a past event that had already been completed prior to a point in time which is referred to. In iv., the point in time when the speaker had worked is prior to “now” or an unspecified “then.” Although iv. utilizes -TE ITA, the past perfect can still be reworded to use -TA like in Ex. 17.

17.   過去 ( かこ ) に 一回 ( いっかい ) は 働 ( はたら ) いたことがあります。
I had worked once in the past.

18. 乗 ( の ) っていた3 人 ( にん ) が 死亡 ( しぼう ) した。(Pluperfect/Past Continuous)
The three people who were/had been riding died.

19. 安全 ( あんぜん ) バーの 鉄製 ( てつせい ) の 棒 ( ぼう ) が 根元付近 ( ねもとふきん ) で 折 ( お ) れていたことが 分 ( わ ) かりました。 (Pluperfect/Present Perfect)
It has been discovered that the metal rod near the base of the safety bar had/has been broken.

Sentence Note: Because it is likely that the rod is still not fixed as it is piece of evidence, the present perfect interpretation is also valid.

The future perfect is a verb form used to describe an event that is expected/planned to happen before a future point in time. This is usually denoted by -TA + でしょう, but the form is not limited to this for the future perfect (Ex. 20). The future progressive perfect also exists with -TE IRU, which indicates an event that is expected/planned to happen in the future whose effects are forecast to continue even after the event realizes.

20. 健太 ( けんた ) が 結婚 ( けっこん ) した 自分 ( じぶん ) を 想像 ( そうぞう ) してみた。
Kenta imagined himself as a married man.

2. Utilizing the past tense (in English translation), -TA may denote a situation that occurred under certain circumstances in the past. The circumstance may in fact be that it was in the past that one “would/used to” do something. With states, this would be interpreted as a repetitive situation in the past. With actions, this would be interpreted as habitual repetition.

21. あの 頃 ( ころ ) は 幸 ( しあわ ) せだった。
I used to be happy in those days.

22. あの 頃 ( ころ ) は 良 ( よ ) かった。
Those were the good old days.

23. かつてあの 店 ( みせ ) に 行 ( い ) きました。
I once would/used to go to that store.

24a. 若 ( わか ) い 頃 ( ころ ) 、 町 ( まち ) の 墓地 ( ぼち ) をよく 歩 ( ある ) いたものだ。
24b. 若 ( わか ) い 頃 ( ころ ) 、 町 ( まち ) の 墓地 ( ぼち ) をよく 歩 ( ある ) いたものだった。
I frequently used to walk the town’s cemetery when I was young. (24a)
He/she used to walk the town’s cemetery when he/she was young. (24b)

Grammar Note: “Used to” is frequently expressed with a verb in the -TA form while preceded by the adverb よく and followed by ものだ. The addition of ものだ gives a matter-of-fact nuance to the statement. The matter-of-fact being so in one’s interpretation of the past calls for the copula to be in the non-past form, but when switching from first person to third person, ものだった is used. This is because another person’s past situation cannot be stated at the same emotional level as would be the case with ものだ.

25. あの 頃 ( ころ ) は、よく 見 ( み ) に 行 ( い ) っていました。
Those days, I used to always go to see it.

Grammar Note: The use of ものだ is not a requirement to bring about the meaning of “used to” as has been shown to be the case in Ex. 22. In this example, -TE ITA is demonstrated to also hold this function without the intervention of ものだ. The difference is that the “matter-of-fact” nuance is lost. Translation-wise, the use of -TE ITA in conjunction with よく brings about a non-literal interpretation of “always.”

26. 学校 ( がっこう ) から 帰 ( かえ ) るとすぐに 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) を 済 ( す ) ませた。
I would immediately finish my homework when I got home from school.

27. 歯 ( は ) を 磨 ( みが ) くとよく 出血 ( しゅっけつ ) しました。
I would often bleed when I brushed my teeth.

28. ジムに 行 ( い ) くとよく 声 ( こえ ) をかけられました。
I would often be called out by someone when I went to the gym.

29. 買 ( か ) い 物 ( もの ) デートに 行 ( い ) くと、よく 彼女 ( かのじょ ) と 喧嘩 ( けんか ) してしまいました。
I would often end up getting into arguments with my girlfriend when(ever) we went on shopping dates.

3. -TA may express a sudden recalling of a future event/plan that the speaker has already recognized as being definite. Many of the realizations we have in our daily lives involve things we already know about. Those facts may just be floating in the back of our minds until for some reason we remember about them and freak out. In the bigger picture, -TA can be viewed as denoting the point in time at which the speaker recognizes something to have already happened (Usages 1-2, 6-7) or recognize as being the case (Usages 3-5).

30. あ、 明日試験 ( あしたしけん ) があった！
Ah, I have an exam tomorrow!

31. 明日仕事 ( あしたしごと ) だった。。。
I have work tomorrow…

32. 今日 ( きょう ) は 締切日 ( しめきりび ) だった！
Today’s the deadline!

33. あ、 忘 ( わす ) れてた！
Oops, I’d forgotten!

4. In the same vein, -TA may also show sudden discovery of a certain state that has been and is still so. This form of discovery also implies that the speaker thinks he/she should have known about the discovery. In this sense, discovery is being treated semantically like remembering. This usage is also referred to as “Discovery Present” and is closely tied to present progressive perfect form.

34. ここだった！
It’s here!
So it was here!

35. え、 東京 ( とうきょう ) にいたの？
What, you’re in Tokyo?

36. あ、 引 ( ひ ) き 出 ( だ ) しに｛あった・入ってた｝！
Ah, it’s in the drawer!
Ah, it was in the drawer!

37. あ、そこにいたの！
There you are!

38. そう、ここにいたよ。
Yep, I’m here.
Yep, I was here along.

Contrast Note: If -RU/U were switched out in these sentences, they would still be grammatical. However, they would lose the indirect report feel because there would no longer be an implied admission that the speaker ought to have known.

5. Another usage of -TA is to request for confirmation of a fact from the listener. It may also be used in a rhetorical sense of confirmation. This usage is frequently employed in 敬語 ( けいご ) to add another layer of formality when asking questions. It’s important to note that the use of a past tense marker for seeking confirmation can also be seen in English.

39. 失礼 ( しつれい ) ですが、どちら 様 ( さま ) でしたか。
I apologize for asking, but who were you again?

40. お 名前 ( なまえ ) はなんと仰いましたか。
What was your name?

41. 判子 ( はんこ ) をお 持 ( も ) ちでしたね。
You had your seal, correct?

42. 同席 ( どうせき ) された 方 ( かた ) はどなたでしたか。
Who was it that you sat with?

43. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) 、 何歳 ( なんさい ) だ（った）っけ。
How old was she?

44. 次 ( つぎ ) は 私 ( わたし ) の 番 ( ばん ) でしたか。
Next turn was mine, was it.

45. 今日 ( きょう ) は 月曜日 ( げつようび ) でしたね。
Today’s Monday, huh.

6. -TA may also be used to denote a proclamation, assertion, and or realization of a situation that has not realized; however, the situation is treated as if it has. This usage cannot be used with time expressions because it already has an implied sense of urgency for the statement to be taken seriously.

46. よし、 買 ( か ) った！
Alright, I’m buying it!

47. もうやめた。
I quit.

48. もう 諦 ( あきら ) めた！
I give up!

49. じゃあ、 頼 ( たの ) みましたよ。
Alright, well, I’m counting on you.

50. よし、これで 勝 ( か ) った！
Alright, I’ll win with this!

7. -TA may be used to express an urgent/immediate command. This is the imperative usage of -TA mentioned earlier. How this works grammatically is that the speaker presses the listener so much to do something immediately that it’s as if it’s already been completed. Though not literally possible, this reflects the hyperbolic origin of this grammar point.

51. どいた、どいた！
Step back, step back!

52. 子供は帰った、帰った！
Kids go home, go home!

53. ちょっと 待 ( ま ) った！
Wait right there!

54. さあ、どんどん 歩 ( ある ) いた 歩 ( ある ) いた！
Well, get to walking!

55. 座 ( すわ ) った、 座 ( すわ ) った！
Sit, sit!

The morpheme -RU/U is one of the most fundamental morphemes in the Japanese language. Although it manifests differently depending on the part of speech, its functions remain depending on the semantic and syntactic conditions of the sentence.

In its basic understanding, the -RU/U form is thought of as being the non-past tense marker of Japanese. Although it is not limited to this interpretation, it can account for any usage in which it corresponds to either the present tense or future tense of English.

In this lesson, we will study the various usages of -RU/U form as well as learn how some of these usages overlap with -TA and -TE IRU. Before continuing, if you have not read through the previous lesson on -TA, please go back and read it first.

In Japanese, the -RU/U form is typically simply referred to as the ル 形 けい . It is a linguistic yet colloquial term for the terminal form ( 終止形 しゅうしけい ) /attributive form ( 連体形 れんたいけい ). Because the latter terms are meant only to indicate morphology in relation to word order, we’ll stick to calling this the “-RU/U form” for the purposes of this discussion.  

After the root of any conjugatable speech is a morpheme that forms the -RU/U form. For Ichidan verbs ( 一段動詞 いちだんどうし ), the morpheme is most easily identified because it happens to be -ru which attaches to the stem of these verbs. For Godan Verbs ( 五段動詞 ごだんどうし ), the morpheme manifests as -u, which attaches to the consonant-ending stems that these verbs have. For adjectives, the morpheme manifests as -i, -shii, or -jii. For the copula, because it is a contraction of である, it is appropriate to treat da as a whole to be the morpheme. 

PRESENT TENSE

In English, the present tense expresses an action that is ongoing or habitually performed, or a state that currently and/or generally exists. -RU/U also expresses all these functions. However, it’s first important to understand how flexible even the concept of “now” can be in both English and Japanese. Take for example the following sentences:

i. My boyfriend just got home now. →　彼氏が今帰ったところだ。
ii. My boyfriend is coming home now. →　彼氏が今帰っているところだ。
iii. My boyfriend will come home now. →　彼氏が今帰る（ところだ）ね。
iv. My boyfriend is home now. →　彼氏がもう帰っている。

We associate “now” with the present, but as these examples demonstrate, it is not fixated solely to the present tense. This is analogous to how the -RU/U form functions. These examples also scratch at the surface of how complex the endings -RU/U, -TA, and -TE IRU can be. For instance, -TE IRU can both denote the present continuous/progressive form like in ii. and the present progressive perfect form like in iv. In iii., the act of “coming home” is perceived to just be starting, which is in contrast to the continued ongoing state implied in ii.   

1. The most fundamental usage of the -RU/U form is to show present state. Existential verbs, adjectives, and adjectival nouns are quintessential here. Present states may very well be ongoing. For instance, in Ex. 5, the existence of people who want to quit their jobs is a present state. The act of wanting to quit is an ongoing state that is marked with -TE IRU. This emphasizes duration of a continued ongoing state. When the “continued” aspect of an ongoing action is not implied, however, -RU/U should be used instead.

1. 庭 ( にわ ) には 木 ( き ) が 3 ( さん ) 本 ( ほん ) ある。
There are three trees in the (court)yard.

2. 北海道 ( ほっかいどう ) を 生息地 ( せいそくち ) にする 亀 ( かめ ) もいる。
There are also turtles who have Hokkaido as their habitat.

3. 彩 ( あや ) ちゃんの 服 ( ふく ) 、めっちゃかわいい。
Aya-chan’s clothes, they’re so cute.

4. これが 最高 ( さいこう ) （だ）！
This is the best!

Grammar Note: Even when the copula is omitted, the -RU/U morpheme is still present grammatically.

5. 仕事 ( しごと ) を 辞 ( や ) めたがっている人がたくさんいる。
There are lots of people who want to quit their jobs.

6. 何 ( なん ) でもケチをつけたがる 人 ( ひと ) が 抱 ( いだ ) く 心理 ( しんり ) とは 何 ( なに ) 　か。
What is the mentality that people harbor who want to find fault in everything?

7. 猛烈 ( もうれつ ) な 風 ( かぜ ) が 吹 ( ふ ) いたと 見 ( み ) られ｛ます・ています｝。
It is believed that there was fierce wind.

2. In the same vein as Usage 1, the -RU/U form may also denote a present psychological state. This is frequently employed with verbal/adjectival expressions of emotion.

8. 本当 ( ほんとう ) にむかつくわ。
It really ticks me off.

9. 腹 ( はら ) が 立 ( た ) つ。
This makes me mad.

10. 鳥肌 ( とりはだ ) が 立 ( た ) つ。
This gives me goosebumps.

11. 気持 ( きも ) ち 悪 ( わる ) い。
This is disgusting/unpleasant.

12. 怖 ( こわ ) い。
I’m scared.

3. Some verbs are used in utterances whose implications are instantaneous with said utterance. These instances create what is known as the “utterance present ( 発言現在 ( はつげんげんざい ) ).

13. 誓 ( ちか ) います。
I vow.

14. ご 冥福 ( めいふく ) をお 祈 ( いの ) りします。
I pray for his/her/their soul(s).

15. 二人 ( ふたり ) の 幸 ( しあわ ) せを 願 ( ねが ) います。
I wish for the two’s happiness.

16. 約束 ( やくそく ) する！
I promise!

4. Sometimes, as if we’re narrating to ourselves, or perhaps when we are narrating, the -RU/U form is used similarly to that of an infinitive to describe what is happening/is to happen in front of the speaker’s/one’s eyes. Of course, if the action can't literally be seen with the eyes, this discrepancy doesn’t stop this usage from being valid.

Grammar Note: An infinitive is the basic form of verb which has no inflection binding it to a particular subject and/or tense, and this too is a function of the -RU/U form.

17. 雨 ( あめ ) が 降 ( ふ ) る。
Rain falls (in front of my eyes).

18. 韓国料理 ( かんこくりょうり ) を 食 ( た ) べ 尽 ( つ ) くす。
Consuming Korean cuisine.

19. 刃 ( やいば ) が 刺 ( さ ) さる。
The blade pierces.

20. 息 ( いき ) が 止 ( と ) まる。
My breath stops.

5. Habitual repetition is another facet of a person’s current state. -TE IRU can similarly be used to denote what one “always does,” but it must be used with adverbs of frequency to establish this meaning. This is so that it can show present habitual action rather than an ongoing action. Even so, it doesn’t denote an inherent habitualness. The -RU/U form need not have such adverbs for this meaning to be had. However, it conversely becomes far more open ended in interpretation without words like “always” or “every day.” It could be interpreted as future intent without context guiding the listener to think habitual action.

Whenever the speaker feels a need to emphasize his current habit, especially when criticized for not doing something, the use of -TE IRU becomes imperative. Habitual statements with -RU/U are most suitable in neutral situations where there is no need to emphasize one’s current habit(s).

Grammar Note: This usage may also be used in the second and third person in question form.

21. いつも 零時 ( れいじ ) に 寝 ( ね ) ます。
I always go to sleep at midnight.

22. 私 ( わたし ) は 食後 ( しょくご ) に 歯 ( は ) を 磨 ( みが ) きます。
I brush my teeth after eating.
I will brush my teeth after eating (from now on).

23. 毎朝 ( まいあさ ) シャワーを 浴 ( あ ) びます。
I take a shower every morning.

24. 毎週教会 ( まいしゅうきょうかい ) に 行 ( い ) きますか。
Do you go to church every week?

25a. 私 ( わたし ) は 毎日公園 ( まいにちこうえん ) を 散歩 ( さんぽ ) します。
25b. 私 ( わたし ) は 毎日公園 ( まいにちこうえん ) を 散歩 ( さんぽ ) しています。
I walk the park every day. (25a)
I’m walking the park every day. (25b)

26. 君 ( きみ ) がいると、いつも 笑 ( わら ) えてる。
I’m always able to laugh when you’re here (with me).

27. 人 ( ひと ) に 話 ( はな ) している 途中 ( とちゅう ) で、 何 ( なに ) をしたかったのか 忘 ( わす ) れてしまうことはありませんか。
While talking to someone, do you ever forget what you wanted to talk about?

6. Yet another nuance that falls under the umbrella of current state is denoting a characteristic and/or general truth. However, a general truth need not literally be a current state. It could be a situation that regularly occurs under certain conditions.

28. カモメは 主 ( おも ) に 水辺 ( みずべ ) に 棲 ( す ) みます。
Seagulls mainly live at waterfronts.

29. 中国語 ( ちゅうごくご ) って 難 ( むずか ) しい。
Chinese is difficult.

30. 君 ( きみ ) はよく 喋 ( しゃべ ) るね。
You sure talk a lot.

31. 毛虫 ( けむし ) が 蝶 ( ちょう ) に 変 ( か ) わります。
Caterpillars become butterflies.

32. 一般人 ( いっぱんじん ) は 人 ( ひと ) を 殺 ( ころ ) すと 逮捕 ( たいほ ) されます。
When ordinary person murders someone, he gets arrested.

33. 日本 ( にほん ) は 地震 ( じしん ) が 多 ( おお ) いところだ。
Japan is a place where there are many earthquakes.

34. 地震 ( じしん ) はプレートが 元 ( もと ) に 戻 ( もど ) ろうとする 時 ( とき ) に起こります。
Earthquakes occur when plates try to return to their original positions.

FUTURE TENSE

7. The future tense in English denotes an action/state that has not yet happened. Even when it is used by itself with no other modal changes, -RU/U can indicate something that you are rather certain will occur in the future. 

35. もうすぐ 消灯時間 ( しょうとうじかん ) だ。
It’s almost lights-out.

36. 電気 ( でんき ) が 消 ( き ) えるね。
The lights will go off, ok?

37. 明日 ( あした ) は 休日 ( きゅうじつ ) だ。
Tomorrow is a holiday.

38. 帰 ( かえ ) る 途中 ( とちゅう ) で 銀行 ( ぎんこう ) に 寄 ( よ ) ってください。
Please stop by the bank while you’re coming home.

39. きっと 合格 ( ごうかく ) するよ。
You’ll definitely pass.

8. -RU/U may show first-person intention and/or plan when used in the future tense. It must, though, be paired with a verb of volition (意志動詞). -RU/U may also simply provide information about what will happen in the future depending on the situation. In English, the -ing form or “going to…” pattern are frequently used for this.

Grammar Note: This usage may also be used in second person and third person in the form of a question. It may also be used in the affirmative in third person, but the -RU/U form must be paired with a modal change that incorporates a less direct tone. Lastly, when this usage is used in the affirmative in second person, it creates a command (See Usage 11).

40. 明日 ( あす ) テキサスに 発 ( た ) ちます。
I head out to Texas tomorrow.

41. 今夜 ( こんや ) は 晩御飯 ( ばんごはん ) を 外食 ( がいしょく ) にする。
Tonight, I’m going to eat out for dinner.

42. 会社 ( かいしゃ ) を 辞 ( や ) めます。
I’m quitting/going to quit my job (at the company).

43. 私用 ( しよう ) で 休暇 ( きゅうか ) を 取 ( と ) ります。
I’m taking/going to take

44. 私 ( わたし ) は 明日 ( あす ) から 1 ( いっ ) 週間京都 ( しゅうかんきょうと ) へ 行 ( い ) きます。
As of tomorrow, I will be going to Kyoto for a week.

45. はい、 私 ( わたし ) が 行 ( い ) きます。
Yes, I am the one going.

46. はい、 消費税 ( しょうひぜい ) は 来月 ( らいげつ ) から 2 ( にー ) % ( パーセント ) ほど 引 ( ひ ) き 上 ( あ ) げられることになります。
Yes, as of next month, the consumers tax will be risen approximately two percent.

47. 何人 ( なんにん ) 来 ( き ) ますか。
How many people are coming?

48. この 車 ( くるま ) がいくらなら 買 ( か ) いますか。
How much would you buy this car for?

49. 台風 ( たいふう ) ３ ( さん ) 号 ( ごう ) は、 九州 ( きゅうしゅう ) の 南部 ( なんぶ ) に 接近 ( せっきん ) していて、 間 ( ま ) もなく 上陸 ( じょうりく ) する 見込 ( みこ ) みです。
Typhoon No. 3 is approached the southern portion of Kyushu, and it is forecast to make landfall any moment.

9．With a rising intonation, -RU/U indicates surprise about a future event. In second person, it can show disbelief, rebuke, or scoffing toward a statement the speaker deems improbable. However, it is not limited to these sorts of negative nuances in second person. You can express surprise about a future event in first and second person.

Grammar Note: -RU/U may also indicate surprise about a present state. Unlike the -TA form, it doesn't imply that the speaker should have known, and it doesn’t indicate the reality at hand as having been recognized in the past.

47. え、私が行く？
What, I’m going?

48. え、山田君がやる？冗談でしょう？
What, you’re going to do it, Yamada-kun? You’re joking, right?

49. あ、やってくれる？ありがとう！
Oh, you’re going to do it? Thank you!

50. 戦争 ( せんそう ) が 終 ( お ) わる？それは 恐 ( おそ ) らく 有 ( あ ) り 得 ( え ) ないだろう。
The war’s going to end? That’s probably impossible.

51. 今年中 ことしじゅう に 首都直下地震 しゅとちょっかじしん が 起 お きます？
There’s going to be an earthquake directly hitting the Tokyo area within this year?

52. あ、そうだ！ 今日午後 きょうごご 3 さん 時半 じはん に 会議 かいぎ がある。
Ah, that’s right! There’s a meeting at 3:30 PM today.

53. あ、あの 人 ひと は 鈴木 すずき さんだ。
Ah, that person is Mr. Suzuki.

INSTRUCTION

10. The -RU/U form may also be used to show step-by-step instructions. This is frequently used in recipes. The instructions are not necessarily directed at one particular person; however, commands can be made by using the -RU/U form (Usage 11).

54. 油 ( あぶら ) をフライパンに 入 ( い ) れて、 175 ( ひゃくななじゅうご ) 度 ( ど ) くらいになるまでに 火 ( ひ ) を 付 ( つ ) ける。
Add cooking oil to the frying pan and heat until it is about 175 degrees.

55. 鍋 ( なべ ) に 湯 ( ゆ ) を 沸 ( わ ) かし、 豆腐 ( とうふ ) を 崩 ( くず ) し 入 ( い ) れて、 笊 ( ざる ) にあげて 水 ( みず ) を 切 ( き ) る。
Boil water in the pot, break up the tofu, and drain in a strainer.

56. 調味料 ( ちょうみりょう ) と 玉 ( たま ) ネギを 加 ( くわ ) えて 炒 ( いた ) め、 溶 ( と ) き 卵 ( たまご ) を 加 ( くわ ) えて 軽 ( かる ) く 混 ( ま ) ぜ、 火 ( ひ ) を 止 ( と ) める。
Sauté upon adding spices and onion, add a beaten egg and lightly mix, and then turn off the heat.

57. 牛肉 ( ぎゅうにく ) は 食 ( た ) べやすい 大 ( おお ) きさに 切 ( き ) り、 片栗粉 ( かたくりこ ) をまぶす。
As for the beef, cut it into easy to eat sizes and then smear the beef with potato starch.

58. スキレットにごま 油 ( あぶら ) を 薄 ( うす ) くひいて 火 ( ひ ) にかけ、ご 飯 ( はん ) を 広 ( ひろ ) げて 載 ( の ) せる。
Lightly cover the skillet with sesame oil, add heat, and spread the rice on top.

COMMAND

11. When -RU/U is used to make a command, it does not have the same time constraint that -TA has. Although it implies that the listener better get to it--which is why it is often used by teachers, parents, or people with a clear higher status over someone else—it is not the case that it has to happen immediately for it to be grammatical.

59. さっさと 片付 ( かたづ ) ける。
Get to cleaning up.

60. 10 ( じゅう ) 秒後 ( びょうご ) に 走 ( はし ) る。
Run in ten seconds.

This sentence would likely be said by a coach and/or someone who would be instructing you to do something. This sentence demonstrates how the “instruction” meaning of -RU/U derives from its sense of command. The pragmatic difference is that the “instructions” given in the -RU/U form are very frequently in polite speech. Even so, an instructor/knowledgeable person instructing is intrinsically higher in position than the listener learning from said individual.

61. すぐに 食 ( た ) べる！
Eat it now!

Sentence Note: Ex. 61 would most likely be said by a semi-strict parent.

62. 我々 ( われわれ ) は 出発 ( しゅっぱつ ) する。
We’re departing.

Sentence Note: The use of first person plural allows for a rather subtle yet explicit means of getting others to act alongside oneself. The person saying this would be the leader of the group.

63. 君 ( きみ ) は 明日 ( あす ) から 大阪 ( おおさか ) へ 出張 ( しゅっちょう ) ｛する・だ｝。
You will be going to Osaka on business starting tomorrow.

64. このお 客 ( きゃく ) さんは 君 ( きみ ) が 接待 ( せったい ) ｛する・だ｝。
You’ll be entertaining this patron.

65. 今 ( いま ) だ！
Now!

Sentence Note: Ex. 65 can be used without imposing a sense of social hierarchy. However, the person stating it would still be taking the initiative to get others to act.

65. 書 ( か ) くんだ！
Write!

Grammar Note: Though not exactly the same, it is important to note that the -RU/U form is used with のだ・んだ instead of the -TA form. This is due to the time restriction placed on -TA form imperatives.

PAST TENSE

12. -RU/U need not always refer to non-past time. There are instances where it does refer to a past event. If -TA were used, it would indicate that the speaker perceives the situation to be remote, but if -RU/U were used, it would mean that the past situation is perceived as if it were directly before the speaker. -TA suggests a detached, objective attitude on the part of the speaker toward the situation, but -RU/U suggests the speaker's subjective and psychological involvement with the situation.

When both -RU/U and -TA are present together, the -RU/U event/state must either be clearly completed/established before the -TA event/state. For instance, in Ex. 67, Mr. Hirota had good-looking teeth before ever showing them when he smiled. Ex. 67 also demonstrates how this facet of the -RU/U form also affects choosing between -TE IRU and -TE ITA. The latter would show definitive completion of a once ongoing event, which is not logical to posit in Ex. 67.

66. ひどいことを 言 ( い ) うね。
What a horrible thing to say.

67. 山田 ( やまだ ) さんは 歯 ( は ) を 出 ( だ ) して 笑 ( わら ) った。 割 ( わり ) と 綺麗 ( きれい ) な 歯 ( は ) を 持 ( も ) っている。
Mr. Hirota smiled showing his teeth. He had rather good-looking teeth.

68. 女房 ( にょうぼう ) がどうしても 結婚 ( けっこん ) してほしいって 泣 ( な ) いて 頼 ( たの ) むから、 仕方 ( しかた ) なく 結婚 ( けっこん ) してやったんだよ。
My wife had cried and begged that I marry her, and so I reluctantly did.  

69. 卵 ( たまご ) がないと 文句 ( もんく ) を 言 ( い ) うから、もう 一回 ( いっかい ) 買 ( か ) いに 行 ( い ) ったの。
You complained about there being no eggs, so I went out again to go buy some. 

70. 血 ( ち ) も 涙 ( なみだ ) もないことを 言 ( い ) うから、バチが 当 ( あ ) たったんだ。
You got what you deserved for saying something so heartless.

In this lesson, we will learn about the grammar point ～ては, which is a combination of the conjunctive particle て and the bound particle は, used here in its contrastive role. Firstly, as a very brief reminder, below is a quick summation of how to conjugate with ～ては. Because this grammar pattern only concerns verbs, we’ll only need to worry about when～ては may become ～では. This occurs for Godan verbs which end in ぐ・ぶ・む・ぬ.

Curriculum Note: This lesson does not cover how the contrastive は can go after the gerund use of the particle て as seen in phrases like ～について, ～に関して, ～に対して, etc. This is to be discussed later in IMABI.

Usage 1: Trouble Causing Hypotheticals

The first usage of ～ては we will look at is how it is used to express situations that bring about anxiety, misgivings, uneasiness, fear, and/or inconvenience.

1. 学校 ( がっこう ) の 体育 ( たいいく ) の 運動 ( うんどう ) で 喘息発作 ( ぜんそくほっさ ) が 出 ( で ) ては 困 ( こま ) ります。
I’m troubled with asthma attacks happening due to exercise at school in gymnastics.

2. 老人 ( ろうじん ) に 見 ( み ) られては 困 ( こま ) ります。
I’m embarrassed when I’m looked at by old people.

3. 誤解 ( ごかい ) があっては 困 ( こま ) りますので。
Since it’d be worrisome if there is a misunderstanding.

4. 傷 ( きず ) が 残 ( のこ ) っては 大変 ( たいへん ) だ。
Things will be difficult if there are any wounds/nicks.

5. 鹿 ( しか ) にやられては 元 ( もと ) も 子 ( こ ) もないので、 森林 ( しんりん ) の 周囲 ( しゅうい ) を 電気柵 ( でんきさく ) で 囲 ( かこ ) っています。
Since it’d all be for naught if it were ruined by deer, we have the surroundings of the forest enclosed in an electric fence.

～ては（いけない・ならない・だめ）

We have actually already learned about this usage of ～ては when we learned about “must” and “must not” conditional phrases. As review, we will go over the basic combinations for these conditional phrases once more.

・～てはいけない: This is used to tell someone he/she mustn’t do something. It isn’t simply used just to forcibly prohibit things. It could simply imply that the act in question is not favorable and that it will not be approved of by the speaker. This pattern is not typically used towards those who are higher in social status.

・～てはならない: This is used to prohibit something with a sense of duty and responsibility. Whereas the phrase above is most frequently used to prohibit and/or disapprove of the action(s) of individuals, this phrase is most frequently used to objectively state things that ought not be allowed by society at large. Because of this, it is frequently used in law and other important, official documents.

・～てはだめだ: This phrase is a more colloquial, softer variant of ～てはいけない.

6. お 盆 ( ぼん ) に 土 ( つち ) を 掘 ( ほ ) ってはいけない。
One mustn’t dig up dirt during the Festival of the Dead.

7. 私 ( わたし ) たちが 責任 ( せきにん ) を 放棄 ( ほうき ) してはならない。
We must not abdicate our responsibility.

8. 動物 ( どうぶつ ) を 殺 ( ころ ) してはだめなのはなぜなんだろう。
Why is it that it’s bad to kill animals?

9. 見 ( み ) た 目 ( め ) で 判断 ( はんだん ) してはいけません。
One mustn’t judge based on appearance.

10. もう 二度 ( にど ) と 戦争 ( せんそう ) を 起 ( お ) こしてはなりません。
We mustn’t start a war ever again.

【Must】

・～なくてはいけない: The use of this pattern indicates that the listener ought to do something, not just because the speaker is demanding such action, but that not doing whatever it is will be unbeneficial/unfavorable for the speaker and/or listener. This is often used to make statements regarding common sense, morality, societal common wisdom, or current trends. Typically, the sentence is not interpreted as first-person unless a first-person pronoun is explicitly used.

・～なくてはならない: This pattern is used for very affirmative commands out of a sense of duty, but this “must” pattern is directed more so toward individual responsibilities rather than societal ones. This pattern is also preferred in formal writing over the phrase above.

11. なんで 勉強 ( べんきょう ) （を）しなくてはいけないの？
Why do you have to study?

Sentence Note: The “you” in the sentence is the indirect “you” and not necessarily literally second-person. This is also the case for Ex. 12

12. 親知 ( おやし ) らずは 絶対 ( ぜったい ) に 抜 ( ぬ ) かなくてはいけないんですか。
Do you have to always pull wisdom teeth?

13. 経済 ( けいざい ) も 国民 ( こくみん ) ひとりひとりも 常 ( つね ) に 成長 ( せいちょう ) を 目指 ( めざ ) さなくてはいけないのです。
Not just the economy but also each and every citizen must constantly aim at growth.

14. 携帯電話 ( けいたいでんわ ) は、 私 ( わたし ) にとってなくてはならない 必需品 ( ひつじゅひん ) だ。
A cellphone is a necessity that one can't be without to me.

15. 台風 ( たいふう ) でも 出勤 ( しゅっきん ) しなくてはならない 会社 ( かいしゃ ) の 体制 ( たいせい ) をどう思いますか。
What do you think about company systems that mandate (workers) be present even during typhoons?

Usage 2: Condition for Strong Emotional Response

This usage of ～ては is used to express that an action/state that has come about is the reason for a strong emotional response, whether that response be a rebuke, retort, or astonishment.

16. そこまで 言 ( い ) われては 反論 ( はんろん ) しないわけにはいかない。
Being talked about to that degree, I have no choice but object.

17. そこまでからかわれ 馬鹿 ( ばか ) にされては 我慢 ( がまん ) （が）なりません。
I can't stand being so ridiculed and made a fool of.

18. 筋 ( すじ ) の 通 ( とお ) らないことを 平然 ( へいぜん ) とやられては 黙 ( だま ) っていられない。
I can't stay silent having something illogical so calmly be done to me.

19. 命 ( いのち ) まで 危険 ( きけん ) に 晒 ( さら ) されては 黙 ( だま ) っていられない。
I can't stay silent as even my life is put in danger.

20. 濡 ( ぬ ) れ 衣 ( ぎぬ ) を 着 ( き ) せられては 黙 ( だま ) ってはいられない。
I can't stay silent when I’m falsely accused.

Usage 3: Repeated Action/Effect

Similar to the particle たり, ～ては is most frequently used to express the repetition (of a series of) actions. This is usage is more naturally emphatic than たり due to the presence of the contrastive/emphatic は. It is most frequently used in the written language and song lyrics as it adds a layer of expressive capability that isn’t necessarily indicative of standard conversation.

Grammatically speaking, the second verbal element of the pattern V＋ては＋V needs to be in the 連用中止形. This is the form of a verb that can at times be used as nouns. Incidentally, this pattern can be treated as a complex nominal phrase as an effect (See Ex. 28). 

21. 書 ( か ) いては 消 ( け ) し、 書 ( か ) いては 消 ( け ) し、なんとかレポートを 書 ( か ) き 上 ( あ ) げた。
 I wrote and erased, wrote and erased in writing up the report.

22.   走 ( はし ) っては 休 ( やす ) み、 走 ( はし ) っては 休 ( やす ) み、 進 ( すす ) み 続 ( つづ ) けた。
From running to resting, I continued forward.   

23. 目 ( め ) を 閉 ( と ) じ、 息 ( いき ) を 吸 ( す ) っては 吐 ( は ) く。
Eyes closed, I inhale and exhale.

24. 人生 ( じんせい ) とは 波 ( なみ ) のように 寄 ( よ ) せては 返 ( かえ ) しているものである。
Life breaks and retreats like waves.

25. あの 猫 ( ねこ ) は、 死 ( し ) んでは 生 ( い ) き 返 ( かえ ) り、 生 ( い ) き 返 ( かえ ) っては 死 ( し ) に、まるで 不死身 ( ふじみ ) だ。
That cat constantly dies and comes back to life; it’s as if it’s immortal.

26. これまで 結婚 ( けっこん ) しては 離婚 ( りこん ) と 再婚 ( さいこん ) を 重 ( かさ ) ねた 不二子 ( ふじこ ) は、なんと 4 ( よん ) 度 ( ど ) もデキ 婚 ( こん ) ！
Fujiko, who has up till now repeatedly been married, divorced, and then remarried, has had four shotgun weddings!

27. 様々 ( さまざま ) な 景色 ( けしき ) が現れては 消 ( き ) えていった。
Various sceneries appeared and went away.

28. 鬱状態 ( うつじょうたい ) になると 落 ( お ) ち 着 ( つ ) きがなくなり、ずっと 部屋 ( へや ) を 歩 ( ある ) き 回 ( まわ ) ったり、 立 ( た ) っては 座 ( すわ ) りを 繰 ( く ) り 返 ( かえ ) したり（する）などが 見 ( み ) られます。
When someone becomes depressed, one will see behaviors such as loss of composure, walking constantly back and forth in rooms, and repeatedly standing up and sitting down.

29. 服 ( ふく ) を 選 ( えら ) ぶときしっくりこなくて、 脱 ( ぬ ) いでは 着 ( き ) てを 何回 ( なんかい ) も 繰 ( く ) り 返 ( かえ ) してしまいます。
When I pick out clothes, I can't get it together and I end up repeatedly taking clothes off and putting them back on many times over.

Grammar Note: Verbs that end up being one-mora long when put in the 連用中止形 usually manifest in the て form when the “V + ては + V” is used as a noun.

30. 夕食 ( ゆうしょく ) が 遅 ( おそ ) いうえにたくさん 食 ( た ) べては 太 ( ふと ) るのは 当 ( あ ) たり 前 ( まえ ) だ。
On top of dinner being late, it’s only natural to be gaining weight each time one eats.  

Usage 4: Infallible Repeat 

The purpose of this usage of ～ては is to explain how something always happens under the condition that it marks. Think of this as an amalgam of the three usages above being intended simultaneously. 

31. 他 ( た ) の 人 ( ひと ) と 同 ( おな ) じようなことをしていては、いつまでも 成功 ( せいこう ) しない。
You will not succeed forever by repeatedly doing the same things as other people.

32. 皆 ( みな ) のように 遊 ( あそ ) んでは 何 ( なに ) もプラスにはならないよ。
There will be no plus to messing around like everyone else.

33. コソコソしていては 何事 ( なにごと ) もうまくいかない。
Nothing will go well from constantly being sneaky about things.

34. 自分 ( じぶん ) の 身体 ( からだ ) を 否定 ( ひてい ) していてはダイエットは 成功 ( せいこう ) できない。
You cannot succeed with a diet by constantly denying what your body (is trying to tell you).

35. 急 ( せ ) いては 事 ( こと ) を 損 ( そん ) じる。
Haste makes waste.

Usage 5: ～てはみる

The purpose of ～てはみる is to express that although one will make an attempt at doing something, one doesn’t have the confidence and/or doesn’t expect a good result.

36. 考 ( かんが ) えてはみるよ。
I’ll think about it (but I’m not so sure I’ll be okay with it).

37. やってはみるけど、うまくいくかどうかは 分 ( わ ) からない。
I’ll definitely try, but I don’t know whether it’ll go well.

38. 一応毎回 ( いちおうまいかい ) クリックしてはみるものの、 一回 ( いっかい ) も 当 ( あ ) たったことありません。
I at any rate try clicking it every time, but I have yet to win even once.

39. 食事 ( しょくじ ) だって 気 ( き ) を 付 ( つ ) けてるし、 色々 ( いろいろ ) と 挑戦 ( ちょうせん ) してはみるけれど、どんなに 頑張 ( がんば ) ってもヤセない。
I pay attention to what my meals are and I try all sorts of challenges, but not matter how much I try, I don’t get slimmer.

40. 英単語 ( えいたんご ) を 覚 ( おぼ ) えてはみるけど、いつも 覚 ( おぼ ) えられない、 覚 ( おぼ ) えられる 気 ( き ) がしない。
I’ll try committing English vocabulary to memory, but I always can't remember, or I’m always not in the mood to be able to remember them.

Usage 6: ～てはどうか

By using the pattern ～てはどうか, you can suggest that someone do something. There is an implication that the suggestion hasn’t been tried yet by the speaker, thus the use of the contrastive は. In more formal speech, this is expressed as ～てはいかがですか.

41. 魔法 ( まほう ) の 世界 ( せかい ) に 来 ( き ) てはどう？
How about coming to the world of magic?

42. 手 ( て ) を 貸 ( か ) すから 車椅子 ( くるまいす ) に 乗 ( の ) ってはどうか。
How about if you use the while chair if I lend you my hands?

43. 捨 ( す ) てる 前 ( まえ ) に 利用 ( りよう ) してはどうですか。
How about using it before throwing it away?

44. 避暑地 ( ひしょち ) へ 足 ( あし ) を 延 ( の ) ばしてはいかがですか。
How would you like going to relax at a summer resort?

45. ご 覧 ( らん ) になってはいかがですか。
How would you like seeing it?

Usage 7: ～てはいる

The contrastive marker は may be inserted inside ～ている to imply that one is doing something, or that what is in question is indeed the case, but that other actions/states are not being undertaken/happening.

46.ここ 5 ( ご ) 年 ( ねん ) は 同 ( おな ) じ 男 ( おとこ ) と 同棲 ( どうせい ) してはいるが、 何 ( なに ) も 築 ( きず ) いてはいない。
Although I’ve been living with the same man for the last five years, we haven’t built anything (together).

47. お 父 ( とう ) さんは 亡 ( な ) くなってはいるけれど、その 存在 ( そんざい ) は 家族 ( かぞく ) のなかにずっとあるものです。
Although our father is no longer with us, his being remains forever within our family.

48. 会社 ( かいしゃ ) としてはそういう 意図 ( いと ) でやってはいるけど、その 意図 ( いと ) どおりに 伝 ( つた ) わっているかはまた 別問題 ( べつもんだい ) なわけで、それはしょうがないのではないか。
As a company, it is doing so with that intent, but whether it’s being transmitted as intended is a separate problem, but

49. トランプ 大統領 ( だいとうりょう ) が 提案 ( ていあん ) した 予算 ( よさん ) は 極端 ( きょくたん ) に 削減 ( さくげん ) されてはいるが、 財政支出 ( ざいせいししゅつ ) は 同氏 ( どうし ) が 大統領選 ( だいとうりょうせん ) の 選挙活動中 ( せんきょかつどうちゅう ) にこだわった 問題 ( もんだい ) ではなかった。
Although the budget presented by President Trump is exclusively reduced, government spending was not a problem that he fussed over during his campaigning in the presidential election.

50. 様々 ( さまざま ) な 舞台 ( ぶたい ) で 核廃絶 ( かくはいぜつ ) が 議論 ( ぎろん ) されてはいるが、 各国 ( かっこく ) の 思惑 ( おもわく ) から 必 ( かなら ) ずしも 進展 ( しんてん ) しているとは 言 ( い ) い 難 ( がた ) い。
Although total abolition of nuclear weapons is discussed in various settings, it is difficult to say that it is necessarily progressing due to each country’s ulterior motives.

Usage 8: ～ではない

As the last use of ～ては to be discussed in this lesson, we return to a grammar point that was first introduced in Lesson 9. Now that you understand how the particle は is exclusively treated as a contrast marker after the particle て, it is only natural to conclude that some degree of contrast is implied with ～ではない, which is indeed the case.

51. 実態 ( じったい ) は 必 ( かなら ) ずしもそうではない。
The reality is not always so.

52. イチジクは果物ではない。
Figs are not fruit.

53. しばしば、この 組織 ( そしき ) は 結果 ( けっか ) ではなく 過程 ( かてい ) や 官僚主義 ( かんりょうしゅぎ ) に 気 ( き ) をとられている。
Too often the focus of this organization has not been on results, but on bureaucracy and process.

54. どの 国 ( くに ) も 軍事的 ( ぐんじてき ) 、 財政的 ( ざいせいてき ) な 負担 ( ふたん ) の 不均衡 ( ふきんこう ) に 耐 ( た ) える 必要 ( ひつよう ) があるべきではない。
No nation should have to bear a disproportionate share of the burden, militarily, or financially.

55. ブラジルのテメル 大統領 ( だいとうりょう ) は 19 ( じゅうく ) 日午前 ( にちごぜん ) 、 国連総会 ( こくれんそうかい ) で、 北朝鮮 ( きたちょうせん ) を 強 ( つよ ) く 批判 ( ひはん ) するとともに、 軍事力 ( ぐんじりょく ) に 頼 ( たよ ) るのではなく、 各国 ( かっこく ) が 協力 ( きょうりょく ) して 平和的 ( へいわてき ) な 解決方法 ( かいけつほうほう ) を 探 ( さぐ ) るべきだと 訴 ( うった ) えました。
President Temer of Brazil on the morning of the 19^th at the United Nations General Assembly, along with strongly criticizing North Korea, urged that each nation not rely on military force but rather search for peaceful solutions through mutual collaboration.

Contractions

For Usages 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8, you may find ては contracted to ちゃ（あ） ・じゃ（あ） . There isn't any difference in meaning whether the vowel /a/ is elongated.

56. 悪 ( わる ) いことはしちゃいけないよ。
You mustn’t do anything bad.

57. 最初 ( さいしょ ) から 新 ( あたら ) しい 勤 ( つと ) めに 遅 ( おく ) れちゃあ 大変 ( たいへん ) だろう？
Wouldn’t it be terrible if you were late to your new job from the very beginning?

58. 挑 ( いど ) むって 言 ( い ) われちゃあ、 俺 ( おれ ) らがやんなきゃなあ。
We gotta do it if we’re told to have a throw down.

59. 自滅 ( じめつ ) してちゃ 勝 ( か ) てるわけがない！
You can't possibly when by constantly ruining yourself!

60. 優 ( やさ ) しいだけじゃ 困 ( こま ) るわ。
It’d just be trouble if (he/she) were just nice.  

61. いや、 呼 ( よ ) んじゃあまずい。
No, now’s not the time to call for (him/her).

62. ワガママで 自分本位 ( じぶんほんい ) な 男 ( おとこ ) じゃ（あ） 困 ( こま ) る。
I’d be in a rut with a man who’s selfish and egotistic.

63. いつまでも 泣 ( な ) いてちゃいけないね。
You mustn’t cry forever.

64. 黙 ( だま ) ってちゃ 困 ( こま ) るんだよ。
[I’m/we’re] going to go through a bunch of trouble with you staying quiet.

65. ぐずぐずしてちゃ 駄目 ( だめ ) だ！
You can't just be dawdling!

The particle のみ is very similar to だけ. One of the main things to keep in mind is that it is not のに. 

のみ has fallen into more so literary usage due to the rise of だけ. のみ has four distinct usages.

•      Limits something to a certain amount.
•      のみだ shows that at that much, there is no other situation.
•      のみか means "not just that".
•      のみならず means "not only".

 Examples

1. この 村 ( ) のみが 水害 ( ) に｛免れた・ 遭 ( あ ) わなかった｝。
    Only this village escaped the damages from the flood.

2. 神 ( ) のみぞ 知 ( ) る。
    Only God knows.

3. 我々はただ 忍耐 ( にんたい ) があるのみだ。
    We only have perseverance. 

4. 入場 ( ) は 招待者 ( ) のみ可 
    Admission by invitation only

5. 老兵 ( ) は 死 ( ) なずただ 消 ( ) え 去 ( ) るのみ。
    Old soldiers never die, they just fade away.

6. 富士山 ( ) はただ 高 ( ) いのみならず、 美 ( ) しいのです。
    Mount Fuji is not just tall, but it is also beautiful. 

7. 剣術 けんじゅつ のみか 世故 せこ にも 長 た け
   Not only know about fencing, but also know about worldly affairs. 
From 池波正太郎

8a. この 水族館 ( ) には、 深海魚 ( ) のみならず、 熱帯魚 ( ) もいます。(A little old-fashioned)
8b. この 水族館 ( ) には、 深海魚 ( ) だけでなく、 熱帯魚 ( ) もいます。(More natural)
      In this aquarium, there are not only deep-sea fish but also tropical fish.

Grammar Note: Using だけでなく is much more common because, again, のみ is very literary.

9. 緊急 きんきゅう の 場合 にのみ 連絡 せよ。
    Call me in only in the case of an emergency.

10. 水不足 みずぶそく はいよいよ 深刻 だ。 後 はただ 雨 が 降 るのを 待 つのみだ。
      The water shortage is really serious. The only thing to do is wait for it to rain.

こそ is a rather straightforward particle to understand, but its usage is a little tricky. 

The first instances of こそ students learn about are set phrases like こちらこそ (likewise), 今度こそ (surely next time), and 今年こそ (surely next year). However, even these set phrases can get messed up.

1a. 今年こそ危機に瀕する言語の重要性が分かるようになりました。 X
1b. 今年になってはじめて危機に瀕する言語の重要性が分かるようになりました。〇
I've finally understood for the first time this year the importance of endangered languages.

2a. 彼こその努力すれば、東大に行けるでしょう。X
2b. 彼ほどの努力をすれば、東大に行けるでしょう。〇
If you strive like him, you’ll be able to go to Tokyo University.

こそ strongly emphasizes what precedes it similarly to the words "certainly" and "indeed." It can be seen after nouns (especially those concerning people), time phrases, Verb＋て, and the 連用形 of verbs.

3. 企業家精神こそ最もリスクが小さな道である。
The entrepreneurial spirit is certainly the least risky road to take. 

4. 物腰こそ 慇懃 ( いんぎん ) だが、根は黒い。
His demeanor is indeed courteous, but his true nature is mean. 

5. 明日こそ鳥は羽ばたく。
The birds will certainly flap tomorrow.

6. 今こそ始めましょう。
Let’s get started now!

7. 今度こそうまくいきますよう！
You'll certainly do better next time!

8. まさかの時の友こそ真の友。
A friend in need is a friend indeed.

9. 今年こそ日本へ行ってみよう。
This year, indeed, let's try going to Japan.

10. このひどい子宮から逃げようと失敗したが、今度こそこの地獄を切り抜けて自由を手に入れよう！
I failed in trying to escape this damned uterus, but next time I will definitely come clear out of this hell and attain freedom!

Sentence Note: Someone like Stewie from Family Guy would say something like this.

11. 健全な国民が存在してこそ国家が成り立つ。
A nation is born with the existence of a healthy citizen body.

12. 喜びこそすれ、怒ることはない。
There’s nothing to be angry about when you’re joyous.

Grammar Note: ～こそすれ・こそなれ・こそであれ involve the 已然形 of the verbal element that follow こそ.

13. 褒めこそすれ、非難することはない。
      She does speak highly (of others), but she never criticizes.

13. 愚かな女でこそあれ、良妻賢母だなんて、とんでもない。
      So long as the woman is a fool, “good wife, wise mother” means nothing.

14. 毒にこそなれ薬にはならない。
      Do more harm than good.

Word Note: When you take out こそ in にこそなれ, you get the archaic copula なり.

Because こそ is so emphatic, sentences with it often end in ～だ, ～（よ）う, ～べきだ, etc. It is used a lot, but it is more common in the written language. Reasons for this include sentences like the last where traditional grammar holds on. In the spoken language, it tends to be used in statements by politicians and what not, and a few of the sentences above could definitely be used as slogans.

The particle こそ can also be paired before or after を, but this is optional and quite uncommon. It may also be paired with the particles に, へ, で, と, から, in which case it will always be preceded by these particles.

15. 山田氏｛（を）こそ・こそ（を）｝知事に推薦したい。 
We want to recommend Mr. Yamada to the governor.

16. 日本にこそおいしい食べ物がありますよ。
There is indeed delicious food in Japan.

17. 今でこそ、嘘がつけるが、あのときは、どうもつけなかった。
Now I can absolutely lie, but at that time, I couldn't whatsoever.

Unlike using が, which sounds like the speaker is picking one thing as the focus, こそ emphasizes this “focus” as the sole thing fit for the situation. It is often used in sentences where one quality is highlighted in the first clause with こそ, but then it gets negated. When this gets flipped around, the second clause with こそ shows what’s actually the case.

18. 「オバマ大統領の支持率が低いですね。」「いえ、違いますよ。支持率こそ伸び悩んでいますが、何かやってくれそうですよ。」
“President Obama’s approval rating is low, isn't it?” No, you’re wrong. Though his approval rating may very well be lagging behind, he seems like he’s going to do something for us”.

19. お金は悪の元とは言うが、お金の金銭欲こそ悪の元である。
They say money is the root of evil, but it’s the lust for money that is the root of evil.

Using ～こそが instead of ～こそ can't be easily explained. If a noun phrase being modified by こそ is the subject of the sentence, grammatically speaking, there is nothing wrong with using ～こそが. If the particle is dropped, it may be because other things in your sentence are just off for the tone to work.

20. 去勢と卵巣除去こそが犬の数の急増を防ぐのです。猫の場合は、毒を加えたミルクで十分なはずでしょう。
Spaying and neutering will definitely prevent the rapid increase of the dog population. As for cats, poison laced milk should do it. 

"A＋からこそ＋B" and "A＋ばこそ＋B"  are mostly interchangeable, translating roughly as "indeed it is because." Both are used when the speaker compares the situation with past experience or knowledge and can't think of anything but reason A for result B. A statement of reason, with the addition of こそ, becomes a declaration of what the speaker perceives to be fact.

21. だからこそ、強い日本を作るために、憲法をなおそう！
Precisely because of this, in order to create a strong Japan, let us fix the constitution!

22. あなたのことを思って｛いるから・いれば｝こそ、こう言うのです。It's precisely because I’m thinking about you that I say this.

23. たとえ過去に犯罪を犯したとしても、人のために全力を｛尽くすから・尽くせば｝こそ、神様に報われるのです。
Even if you've committed a crime in the past, it is precisely because you are giving your all to the better of people that you will be rewarded by God.

24. 愛して｛いるから・いれば｝こそ、別れなければならないのです。
It is exactly because I love you that we must separate.

25. 気が｛短いからこそ・短ければこそ｝、喧嘩してはなりません。
It is precisely because of your short temper that you mustn't get into an argument.

26. 充実した毎日を送れるのは、心身が健康｛だから（こそ）・であればこそ｝だ。
The reason why I am able to live fulfilled each day is the fact that my mind and body are healthy.

27. その発想があったからこそ、道子は同棲生活をとりあえず清算して山岳拠点に身を投ずることができた。
It was precisely because Michiko had that conception that she was for now able to throw herself to  the base in the mountains and end her cohabitation lifestyle.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.

Word Note: 身を投ずる　＝　身を投じる. 

Grammar Note: ～ばこそ has become more literary, and it is usually not used by the younger generations. Inverting the sentences can cause grammatical problems. When ～からこそだ ends the sentence, it is often the case that こそ just gets dropped. Sometimes, keeping it can make the sentence sound unnatural, especially in the spoken language. 

Examples with the format A｛から・ば｝こそB can be reworded to BのはA｛から・ば｝こそだ if the context is resultative, but in contradictory contexts, this is not possible. However, when you can reword to BのはAからこそだ, it is because A is expressing a positive cause/reason. Negative situations don't go.

 ～ばこそ: 一般条件

～ばこそ may be used in showing a general condition. This is simply based on the fact that you are using the conditional particle ば in the pattern. As stated above, the context does not involve contradictory clauses. ば functions as a general condition, and the situation is in regards to knowledge, morals, or logic of some sort. The pattern becomes unnatural when the situation is already a defined condition of the past.

28. 政府のことを｛思ったからこそ 〇・思えばからこそX｝、腹を立てたんじゃないか。
It's surely because you thought about the government that you got mad, no?

29. 政府のことを思えばこそ、腹を立てることも多い。
Of course, when you think about the government, you often get mad.

30. 親友の友だちが励まして｛くれるから・くれればこそ｝、挫折せずに生きていけるんだ。
Because I certainly have a true friend to encourage me on, I can live on without setbacks.

"A＋｛から・ば｝こそ＋B" are used to express personal declaration, but when one is making a statement about objective fact regarding the laws of nature, then they become unnatural. 

31. 本当に信じていればこそ、こうして頼んでいるのです。
Because I truly believe in you, I am asking you this.

32. 岡田さんのことを思うからこそ、本当のことを言うべきでしょう？
Because I truly think about Okada-san, should I tell him/her the truth?

33a. 火星にも引力が｛あるからこそ・あればこそ｝、物体は地表へと落下する。X
33b. 火星にも引力があるから、物体は地表へ（と）落下する。〇
Since there is also gravity on Mars, objects will fall to the surface. 

34. 表題作の「光と影」も、まさに医家でなければもてない眼差しと、作家でなければ見抜くことができない眼差しがあったればこそと、私は確信している。
Along with the title work "Light and Shadow", I'm confident that he had the eye that only a doctor could have and the eye with which he could see through things being a novelist.
From 光と影 by 渡辺淳一 in the 解説 by 小松伸六.

Grammar Note: あったれば　＝　あれば. 

AてこそB is used when the speaker is evaluating or persuading the listener based on experience/social wisdom/morals/ethics and a positive B coming about. Because there is a condition A, a positive B naturally/necessarily comes about. B must be some noun (of condition), adjective, potential or passive phrase, all of which are non-volitional. B can't be a phrase that shows the speaker’s/your volition.

35. 見知らぬ人を快く歓迎してこそ、誰にも熱く歓迎されるのです。
As you cheerfully welcome strangers, you will be warmly welcomed by anyone.

36. 身を捨ててこそ浮ぶ瀬もあれ。(Set Phrase)
Literally: Just as throw your own self away, there are also rapids for your body to float in.
Risk all and gain all.

37. この山中に暮らしをしてこそ、完璧に平等な理想の社会を築くことができるのではないか。人間らしい叫び声を上げることができてこそ、革命家たり得るはずなのだ。
Isn't it not possible to build a perfectly impartial society by living within the mountains?  It should be possible to become a revolutionist by simply giving a human shout. 
From 光の雨 by 立松和平.

38. 原因があり条件があってこそ現象としてとらえられるのだが、条件は刻一刻と変化する。
One can grasp things as phenomena so long as there is a cause and condition, but conditions change moment by moment.
From 光の雨 by 立松和平. 

Grammar Note: たり得る is a combination of たり (a classical copula) and ～得る (showing potential). It is equivalent to であることができる。 

All instances of ～てこそ may be replaced with ～てはじめて, but this doesn't mean that ～てはじめて is always interchangeable with ～てこそ. Just like ～ばこそ, ～てこそ cannot be used with some past or individual event with a defined condition.

39. 君と会ってはじめて本当の愛の意味が分かった気がする。
      Since meeting you, I feel like I've understood the meaning of true love for the first time.

AてこそB is interchangeable with A｛から・ば｝こそB whenever the situation is a defined, resultative condition, the likes of which are seen with から・ので. However, if the situation is hypothetical, you should use ～てからこそ・ばこそ. If it is a situation that could be defined as hypothetical but not necessarily, paraphrasing ～てこそ out with ～てからこそ, ～ばこそ, ～ば, or ～から would be fine.

40a. 全力を尽く｛してこそ・せばこそ・してはじめて｝、神様に報われるのです。〇
40b. 全力を尽くせば、神様に報われるのです。X
It is precisely because of you giving your all that you will be rewarded by God.

41a. 人々がこの地球を守ってこそ、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。〇
41b. 人々がこの地球を｛守ってからこそ・守ればこそ｝、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。〇41c. 人々がこの地球を守るから、人類はサバイバルが可能だ。X/△
So long as people protect this earth, humanity has the potential to survive. 

42. 一生懸命｛頑張ってこそ・頑張るからこそ・頑張ればこそ・頑張るから・頑張れば｝、成功するのだ。
You'll succeed if I try all my might. Of course, by now you should realize that there are minor nuance changes in switching between the options, but at least you know what a situation looks like in which all are fine. 

The noun 訳 when read as わけ can be translated as “conclusion from reasoning”, but it is not to be confused with the reading やく, which means  “translation."

1. そのわけは 未 ( いま ) だ 解明 ( かいめい ) されていない。
     The reason for that has still yet to be clarified.

2. なるほど、そんなわけで、 金子 ( かねこ ) は 帰国 ( きこく ) したのか。
    I see, so that’s why Kaneko returned to Japan.

3. あいつはいつも 訳 ( わけ ) の 分 ( わ ) からないことばかりやってるよ。
    That guy always does a bunch of nonsense. 

4. ロケット 団 ( だん ) がピカチュウを 追 ( お ) っている 理由 ( りゆう ) はこういうわけです。
    This is the reasoning for Team Rocket chasing Pikachu.

5. てなわけで、ごきげんよう！

     With that, have a nice day!

Contraction Note: てなわけで comes from というようなわけで. It is equivalent to “with that being said” and is very fitting in this example sentence in concluding the conversation, but it is rather interchangeable with the phrase ということで.  Just as in English, either of these two phrases are used in making transitions.

6. 訳 ( わけ ) もなく、 彼 ( かれ ) は 机 ( つくえ ) を 壊 ( こわ ) した。
    Without any reason, he broke the desk.

7. ちゅうわけで、 今夜 ( こんや ) も 行 ( い ) こうぜ～。
   With that, let’s go tonight too!

Contraction Note: ちゅう is a contraction of という, and together, ちゅうわけで is yet another means of saying “so with that…”

訳だ, most frequently spelled as わけだ, is multifaceted in meaning, but its fundamental meaning is to express reasoning which has come about from having thought along the logic or reasoning from one certain circumstance which led the speaker to yet another circumstance. Meaning, there is a known fact that leads to a reason or cause for which one draws a conclusion. In doing so, this pattern draws parallels with はずだ and ことになる, but as is always the case with interrelated grammar points, it will be necessary for us to delve into when and how these patterns are ever interchangeable. 

All three of these patterns demonstrate an inevitable conclusion that the speaker makes after having thought things through logically. However, whereas わけだ and ことになる can be viewed as stating a matter as logically based established fact, はずだ more so states induction with a high degree of confidence—not quite fact.

8. このガス 雲 ( うん ) は、ブラックホールの 潮汐力 ( ちょうせきりょく ) によって 破壊 ( はかい ) され、 降着円盤 ( こうちゃくえんばん ) に 衝突 ( しょうとつ ) するはずです。
This gas cloud should be destroyed by the tidal force of the black hole and collide with the accretion disk.

9. 水蒸気 ( すいじょうき ) を 含 ( ふく ) んだ 空気 ( くうき ) が 上昇 ( じょうしょう ) し、 雪雲 ( ゆきぐも ) を 作 ( つく ) ると、 雪 ( ゆき ) が 降 ( ふ ) るわけです。
When air filled with water vapor rises and creates snow clouds, it snows.

10. 乱層雲 ( らんそううん ) は、 横 ( よこ ) に 広 ( ひろ ) がっているので、 小雨 ( こさめ ) が 長 ( なが ) く 降 ( ふ ) り 続 ( つづ ) くことになる。
The nimbostratus stretches horizontally, and so the light rain will continue to fall for a long time.

わけだ is at its heart an expression that decisively demonstrates a logical conclusion based on some premise. はずだ, on the other hand, does not assert knowledge of the truth as it only infers a conclusion based on the extent of information at the speaker’s disposal. It is a “should” and nothing more. The predicates before わけだ and はずだ, thus, have a fundamental difference. For the former, the predicate is known as fact and is in response to why it is so. For the latter, the predicate is not known to be fact, but its validation is what is being set in motion. Their focal points may share some similarity in showing a conclusion, but hazu da はずだ places emphasis on the speaker’s high confidence about how something ought to be the case while わけだ places emphasis on what has come about from following a logical path of reasoning. Both, however, are used in a very explanatory sense. They simply differ in the nature of the explanation: fact or conjecture.

Conjugation Note: Because わけだ is composed of a noun, there is nothing special about how it attaches to other parts of speech.

Both わけだ and はずだ are actually subjective in nature despite わけだ emphasizing what the speaker feels to be established fact, but this is exactly how both demonstrate subjectivity. Of course, はずだ is by far the most subjective in nature. Even if the statement which the speaker is trying to make with はずだ is based on facts, it is at the very most inference that is hoping to squeeze agreement from the listener. This is so much so that if that if what ends up being the case is different than what expected and asserted with はずだ, suspicion as to whether said realization is true is inferred. This never happens with わけだ.

11. 普通 ( ふつう ) なら 固体 ( こたい ) は 液体 ( えきたい ) に 沈 ( しず ) むんですが、これってなんで 浮 ( う ) いてるの？
Usually, solids sink in liquids, but why is this floating?

12. 氷 ( こおり ) は 水 ( みず ) より 軽 ( かる ) いので、 固体 ( こたい ) とはいえ 水 ( みず ) に 浮 ( う ) くわけです。
Ice is lighter than water, and so although it’s a solid, that’s why it floats in water.

Where does ことになる fall in all this? It is quite interchangeable with わけだ as it too expresses how an inevitable conclusion is brought about by following logic, fact, and or the course of things, but unlike わけだ, it is extremely objective in nature. In summary, all three patterns show conclusions based on logic, but they differ in objectivity and in the nature of their claims.

13. 形 ( かたち ) あるものは 全 ( すべ ) て 壊 ( こわ ) れるわけですよね？
Things with form must all go to pieces, right?

14. アセトアルデヒドは、 有害物質 ( ゆうがいぶっしつ ) なので、さらに 炭酸 ( たんさん ) ガスと 水分 ( すいぶん ) に 分解 ( ぶんかい ) されることになります。
Because acetaldehyde is a toxic substance, it becomes further decomposed to carbonic acid and water. 

As far as わけだ is concerned, its fundamental meaning being to express reasoning, which has come about from having thought along the logic or reasoning from one certain circumstance which led the speaker to yet another circumstance, is not so difficult to comprehend, but there are issues that arise when looking further into the relationship between the two circumstances intrinsically implied with わけだ. At times, what わけだ attaches to shows reason/cause, and at other times it shows result, which at first glance seem to be contradictory. In order to reconcile this, it is necessary to separate the individual functions of わけだ according to the flow of awareness of the speaker as this will help determine the relationship meant by whatever two circumstances are linked with it.

The reason for why all this is necessary is because わけだ is intrinsically subjective to some degree. The subjective nature lies in the fact that although it may be based on established fact/logic, these facts and or logic are being represented with the speaker’s personal point of view. Depending on where one’s flow of thought goes, one’s thoughts may levitate toward to either the reason/cause or the effect of the logical conclusion clause that わけだ attaches to.

When showing result/effect, わけだ can be associated with claims that refer to an unconfirmed event in the past as well as claims based on established fact and as of yet established ‘fact.’ Choosing はずだ or ことになる instead depends on the objectivity you wish to give to the result, but it is worth noting that ことになる doesn’t work when the result has already happened.

15. フランスはフィンランドと 1 ( いち ) 時間 ( じかん ) の 時差 ( じさ ) があるから、ホテルには 日本時間 ( にっぽんじかん ) の 15 ( じゅうご ) 時 ( じ ) ごろに 着 ( つ ) くわけだ。
Because there is a one-hour time difference between France and Finland, (I) will arrive at the hotel around 3 PM JST.

16. そんなに 市場 ( いちば ) に 出回 ( でまわ ) ってるんだったら、 確 ( たし ) かに 乱獲 ( らんかく ) とかで 5 ( ご ) 年後 ( ねんご ) に 姿 ( すがた ) を 完全 ( かんぜん ) に 消 ( け ) してしまうわけですね。
If it’s circulating that much in the markets, then it’ll definitely completely disappear five years from now due to overfishing and what not.

17. 2 ( に ) 時間遅 ( じかんおく ) れでシアトルを 出発 ( しゅっぱつ ) したので、 2 ( に ) 時間遅 ( じかんおく ) れでハワイに 到着 ( とうちゃく ) したわけです。
(I/We) departed Seattle with a two-hour delay, which is why we arrived at Hawaii two-hours late.

18. 2 ( に ) 時間遅 ( じかんおく ) れでシドニーを 出発 ( しゅっぱつ ) したので、およそ 2 ( に ) 時間遅 ( じかんおく ) れでジャカルタに 到着 ( とうちゃく ) したはずです。
(They) departed Sydney with a two-hour delay, and so they should have arrived at Jakarta approximately two-hours late.

19. 執筆者 ( しっぴつしゃ ) の 方 ( かた ) は、ベンチャーキャピタル 出身 ( しゅっしん ) の 公認会計士 ( こうにんかいけいし ) なので、 道理 ( どうり ) で 内部事情 ( ないぶじじょう ) に 詳 ( くわ ) しいわけです。
The author (of this) is a certified public accountant from a venture capital, which is no wonder why he is well-informed about internal state of affairs.

20. 岡田 ( おかだ ) さんは 韓国 ( かんこく ) で 5 ( ご ) 年 ( ねん ) くらい 働 ( はたら ) いていたので、そもそも 韓国 ( かんこく ) の 内部事情 ( ないぶじじょう ) に 詳 ( くわ ) しいはずです。
Mr. Okada had worked in South Korea for around five years, and so he should know about the internal state of South Korea anyway.

21. ところで、 最近農薬 ( さいきんのうやく ) を 使 ( つか ) い 始 ( はじ ) めたよね。で、もう 害虫 ( がいちゅう ) がつかない｛わけですか・ことになりますか｝。
By the way, you’ve started to use agrochemicals, right? Will the pests no longer stick?

Grammar Note: The question form of はずだ does not exist due to the strong subjective nature it has in expressing the speaker’s thoughts of what something “should” be. 

If the reason/cause is known from established fact, then はずだ can't be used, but if the reason/cause deals with something that one hasn’t gone out and confirmed, then either can be used. It’s just that わけだ would be somewhat subjective whilst still presenting the matter as fact.

22. 部屋 ( へや ) がとっても 静 ( しず ) かですね。あ、みんなが 休憩 ( きゅうけい ) に 入 ( はい ) ったわけですね。
The room is very quiet isn’t it? Ah, everyone’s gone on break.

23. 今年 ( ことし ) は、ブドウの 出来 ( でき ) が 去年 ( きょねん ) と 比 ( くら ) べてやや 悪 ( わる ) かったんですけど、ま、 冷夏 ( れいか ) だったわけですね。
This year, the quality of the grapes was bad compared to last year, but, well, it was a cold summer.

24. 今年 ( ことし ) のトマトの 出来 ( でき ) が 悪 ( わる ) かったです。まあ、 本来 ( ほんらい ) この 夏 ( なつ ) も 冷夏 ( れいか ) だったはずなので、 仕方 ( しかた ) がないですね。
This year’s tomato quality was bad. Well, this summer was originally supposed to be a cold summer, so it can't be helped.

25. 台風 ( たいふう ) が 近 ( ちか ) づいているわけですが、 近所 ( きんじょ ) の 周 ( まわ ) りは 雨 ( あめ ) が 降 ( ふ ) ったり、 青空 ( あおぞら ) が 見 ( み ) えたり、 嫌 ( いや ) な 雲 ( くも ) が 流 ( なが ) れてきたりしてて、 天気 ( てんき ) が 落 ( お ) ち着きません。
It’s because the typhoon is approaching but, in and around the neighborhood, it rains, lets up to see the blue sky, then awful looking clouds flood in…back and forth. The weather won’t calm down. 

Grammar Note: ことになる is incapable of being used to show reason/cause. It is limited to show result/effect in the most objective of situations. 

When acknowledging the truth of something, わけだ is interchangeable with はずだ, but the nuance changes to showing what something ought to be, which isn’t surprising. However, for every “ought” you can think of, there are just as many situations that are in fact true which you can then acknowledge with わけだ, and these situations can overlap a lot.

26.「 日本 ( にほん ) にいつ 来 ( き ) たの」「 2 ( に ) 歳 ( さい ) のとき」「はあ？じゃ、 日本 ( にほん ) に 住 ( す ) んで ２０ ( にじゅう ) 年 ( ねん ) ？ 道理 ( どうり ) で 日本語 ( にほんご ) が 流暢 ( りゅうちょう ) なわけだね」
“When did you come to Japan?” “When I was two years old.” “What? Then, you’ve lived in Japan for 20 years? Well no wonder you’re fluent in Japanese.”

27. 開 ( あ ) かないわけだよ。そもそも 違 ( ちが ) う 鍵 ( かぎ ) を 渡 ( わた ) したんだから。
It won’t open. That’s because I handed you the wrong key in the first place.

28. 少子高齢化 ( しょうしこうれいか ) が 進 ( すす ) んでいる。このため、 健康保険料 ( けんこうほけんりょう ) は 高 ( たか ) くなっているわけだ。
The decreasing birthrate and aging population is advancing. Because of this, health insurance has gone up.

29. 「いくら 一生懸命勉強 ( いっしょうけんめいべんきょう ) しても、まだ 英語 ( えいご ) の 能力 ( のうりょく ) が 足 ( た ) りません。」「 要 ( よう ) するに、 英語 ( えいご ) を 話 ( はな ) すのが 下手 ( へた ) だというわけでしょう。」
"No matter how much I study, my English skills are still lacking." "In short, you're not good at speaking English, right?"

はずだ Not Possible

If there is no chance of speculation from not having verified the claim oneself, はずだ can't be used. It doesn’t make sense to make an inference about something you’ve already observed. 

30. 「 岸本 ( きしもと ) さんは 会社 ( かいしゃ ) でクビになったらしいよ」「だからずっと 家 ( いえ ) に 籠 ( こも ) ってるわけね」
“It seems that Mr. Kishimoto was fired at his company. “So that’s why he’s confined himself at home this whole time.”

はずだ would not make sense in this sentence because the second speaker has observed Kishimoto being in his home the whole time.

31. 確 ( たし ) かに、 火災 ( かさい ) の 後 ( あと ) 、 目 ( め ) が 痛 ( いた ) いと 訴 ( うった ) えて 出 ( で ) る 者 ( もの ) が 多 ( おお ) かった。あの、 音道 ( おとみち ) としか 話 ( はな ) そうとしなかったアルバイトの 娘 ( むすめ ) も、 目 ( め ) が 痛 ( いた ) み、 黒 ( くろ ) い 煙 ( けむり ) が 出 ( で ) たと 言 ( い ) っていた。あの 時 ( とき ) には、まさかこんな 妙 ( みょう ) な 事件 ( じけん ) になるなんて、 考 ( かんが ) えてもみなかった。それが、 男 ( おとこ ) が 勝手 ( かって ) に 燃 ( も ) え 出 ( だ ) したというし、 時限装置 ( じげんそうち ) は 見 ( み ) つかるし、お 陰 ( かげ ) で 俺 ( おれ ) は、お 嬢様 ( じょうさま ) と 楽 ( たの ) しい 毎日 ( まいにち ) を 過 ( す ) ごすことになっちまったってわけだ。
There were certainly many people who came forward claiming that their eyes hurt after the fire. That girl, who was a part-time worker and only tried to speak Otomichi, also claimed that her eyes hurt and that there was black smoke. At that time, I never even thought that this would become such a strange case. That…a man would just catch himself on fire, that a timing device would be found, and thanks to all this, I’ve ended up spending every pleasant day with the lady (detective).

32. 夫 ( おっと ) と 浮気相手 ( うわきあいて ) の 会話 ( かいわ ) の 録音 ( ろくおん ) は 不貞行為 ( ふていこうい ) の 存在 ( そんざい ) を 示 ( しめ ) す 証拠 ( しょうこ ) になります。
Recording of one’s husband and lover becomes proof of the existence of unfaithful acts.

わけだ also happens to be frequently used with statements that the speaker deems to be common sense/well-known establish fact, so much so that it can viewed as a final particle. In fact, this is so prevalent that わけ by itself at the end of a sentence is almost as common as hearing other final particles like よ or ね.

33. 口 ( くち ) に 入 ( い ) れた 瞬間 ( しゅんかん ) 、もう 旨味 ( うまみ ) が 口 ( くち ) に 広 ( ひろ ) がるわけ。
The moment you put it in your mouth, the taste spreads through your mouth.

34. そこが 男 ( おとこ ) らしいわけよ。
That right there is what’s manly.

35. こうして 二人 ( ふたり ) は 結婚 ( けっこん ) して 幸 ( しあわ ) せに 暮 ( く ) らしたわけです。
And so the two married and lived happily. 

In the previous lesson, we learned all about the phrase わけだ and its relation with similar phrases. What we did not do is cover what happens when we use this in the negative. This is because there are three possible options that are all different from each other in their own unique ways. These phrases are as follows:

• わけではない
• わけがない
• わけにはいかない

Because the situations they are respectively used in are quite different, it will be very important to hone down on these differences in order to properly use them.

わけではない is, simply put, the basic negation of わけだ. Therefore, it may be used in all five usages mentioned in the previous lesson. Therefore, context will be necessary to show whether it used in negating reason, cause/effect, acknowledge, or (re)stating fact. It is simply translated as “it is not that…” However, despite showing negation, it can be viewed as not being a 100% denial.

1. 絶対 ( ぜったい ) に 反対 ( はんたい ) （だ）というわけではないんですが、もうすこし 考 ( かんが ) えてみたいんです。
It’s not that I’m absolutely against it, but I would like to think about it a little more.

2. 「 僕 ( ぼく ) は 何 ( なん ) とも 言 ( い ) えないんですけれど、 根本 ( ねもと ) さんも 賛成 ( さんせい ) なんでしょうか」「いや、うちもその 意見 ( いけん ) には 全面的 ( ぜんめんてき ) に 賛成 ( さんせい ) （だ）というわけじゃありません」
“I can't really say anything, but are you too in support of it, Mr. Nemoto?” ”No, it’s not that I’m wholeheartedly in support of the opinion either.”

3. 彼氏 ( かれし ) の 考 ( かんが ) えてることがすべて 分 ( わ ) かるわけじゃないが、おおよそは 分 ( わ ) かるよ。
It’s not that I understand everything my boyfriend is thinking, but I generally do.

4. 「ベジタリアンということは、 肉 ( にく ) や 魚 ( さかな ) は 全然食 ( ぜんぜんた ) べないということですか。」「いろいろなベジタリアンがいますが、 私 ( わたし ) の 場合 ( ばあい ) は、 全然 ( ぜんぜん ) 食 ( た ) べないというわけではありません。 魚 ( さかな ) は 食 ( た ) べることがありますから。つまり、 魚菜食主義者 ( ぎょさいしょくしゅぎしゃ ) なんです。ペスクタリアンとも 言 ( い ) いますよ。」
“Is being a vegetarian not eating any meat or fish?” “There are many kinds of vegetarians, but as for myself, it’s not that I don’t completely eat (meat). That’s because I eat fish. In other words, I follow pescaterianism. You can also call me a pescatarian.”

5. お 酒 ( さけ ) はあまり 飲 ( の ) みませんが、 飲 ( の ) めないわけじゃないですよ。
I don’t really drink alcohol, but it’s not that I can't drink it.

6. 全 ( すべ ) てが 私 ( わたし ) の 責任 ( せきにん ) （だ）というわけではありません。
That doesn't mean it's entirely my fault.

7. そこまで 本気 ( ほんき ) で 英語 ( えいご ) を 勉強 ( べんきょう ) したいわけではない。
It’s not that I want to seriously study English to that extent.

8. 梅雨 ( つゆ ) の 頃 ( ころ ) はよく 降 ( ふ ) りますが、 毎日降 ( まいにちふ ) るわけではありません。
In the rainy season it frequently rains, but it’s not the case that it rains every day.

9. 死 ( し ) ぬ 気 ( き ) でやっても 本当 ( ほんとう ) に 死 ( し ) ぬわけじゃないよ。
Even if you did it with the will to die, it’s not that you will really die.

10. まだ 結婚 ( けっこん ) していないですが、 結婚 ( けっこん ) したくないわけでもないんです。
I’m not married yet, but it’s not that I don’t want to get married.

11. ホタテのこういうことを 知 ( し ) りたかったわけじゃないのよ。
It’s not the case at all that I wanted to know this about scallops.

12. 「この 患者 ( かんじゃ ) は 全然助 ( ぜんぜんたす ) からないんですか。」「いいえ、 全然助 ( ぜんぜんたす ) からないというわけではありませんが、 難 ( むずか ) しいでしょう。」
“Can this patient not be saved?” “No, well it’s not the case that he can't be helped at all, but it’ll be difficult.”

13. 恋 ( こい ) を 知 ( し ) らないわけじゃないし、 逃 ( に ) げてるわけでもない。
It’s not that I don’t know love, and it’s also not even that I’m running away.

14.「 智君 ( さとしくん ) のこと、 好 ( す ) きじゃないの？」「 好 ( す ) きじゃないってわけじゃないけど…」
“Do you not like Satoshi?” “It’s not that I don’t like him, but…”

15. 悪 ( わる ) いことをしたわけじゃない。
It’s not that I did something bad. 

16. ビッグフートが 存在 ( そんざい ) するわけがない。
There’s no way that Big Foot exists.

17. 六月 ( ろくがつ ) に 雪 ( ゆき ) が 降 ( ふ ) るわけがない。
There’s no way that it will/can snow in June.

18. ペンギンは 絶滅 ( ぜつめつ ) するわけがないでしょう。
Surely there’s no way that penguins will go extinct.

19. 偶然 ( ぐうぜん ) なわけがないでしょう。
Surely there’s no way it was a coincidence.

20. 英語 ( えいご ) はおろか、 中国語 ( ちゅうごくご ) も 学 ( まな ) べるわけないでしょう。
English is one thing, but there’s no way that I could learn Chinese, no?

21. 黙 ( だま ) って 見送 ( みおく ) ることなど 出来 ( でき ) るわけがないでしょう。
There’s no way I can just stay silent and see (him) off, you know.

22. 皆 ( みんな ) に 信用 ( しんよう ) されるわけがないでしょう。
There’s definitely no way that (he) would be trusted by everyone, you know.

23. 病院 ( びょういん ) を 退院 ( たいいん ) して １ ( いち ) 日 ( にち ) も 過 ( す ) ぎていないんだから、 旅行 ( りょこう ) に 行 ( い ) けるわけなんてないよ。
It hasn’t even been a day since (he) left the hospital, so there’s absolutely no way he’d go traveling.

24. 稚魚 ( ちぎょ ) はたとえば 小 ( ちい ) さい 池 ( いけ ) だったら、 全部駆除 ( ぜんぶくじょ ) できるのかもしれないけど、 琵琶湖 ( びわこ ) みたいなところでは 完全 ( かんぜん ) に 駆除 ( くじょ ) できるわけがないでしょう。
If say it were a small pond, you could exterminate all the juvenile fish, but if it were a large place like Lake Biwa, there’s no way that you could possibly completely exterminate them.

25. いくら 頭 ( あたま ) がいい 人 ( ひと ) でも、 一年間 ( いちねんかん ) で 広東語 ( かんとんご ) がマスターできるわけがありません。
No matter how smart someone is, there’s no way one could master Cantonese in year.  

When stating that an action is not reasonable/proper for obvious reasons and cannot be done as an effect, you use わけにはいかない. It can be translated as “there’s no way...can…/...cannot afford to…”

26. まだまだ 終了報告出 ( しゅうりょうほうこくだ ) してないから、 帰 ( かえ ) るわけにはいかないだろう。
I still haven’t done the end of the day report, so there’s no way I can go home.

27. 曖昧 ( あいまい ) な 態度 ( たいど ) を 取 ( と ) るわけにはいきません。
You cannot afford to take a vague attitude.

28. 風邪 ( かぜ ) を 引 ( ひ ) いてしまったんですが、 今日 ( きょう ) は 大事 ( だいじ ) な 会議 ( かいぎ ) があるので、 休 ( やす ) むわけにはいきません。
I caught a cold, but because I have an important meeting today, I can't afford to take the day off.

29. 車 ( くるま ) で 来 ( き ) ちゃったから、お 酒飲 ( さけの ) むわけにはいかん。
I accidentally came by car, so there’s no way I can drink.

30. 彼氏 ( かれし ) が 作 ( つく ) った 料理 ( りょうり ) は 辛 ( から ) すぎても、 食 ( た ) べないわけにはいかない。
Even if my boyfriend’s cooking is too spicy, there’s no way I can just not eat it.

31. 休 ( やす ) みだからといって、 勉強 ( べんきょう ) しないわけではない。
I can't afford to not be studying just because we’re on holiday.

32. 義父母 ( ぎふぼ ) が 訪 ( たず ) ねてくるから、 掃除 ( そうじ ) しないわけにはいかないですね。
My in-laws are coming to visit, so I can't afford not to clean.

33. 山口 ( やまぐち ) さんも 一緒 ( いっしょ ) に 来 ( こ ) てくださるわけにはいきませんか。
Is there no way that you can't come with us, Mr. Yamaguchi?

34. 冬 ( ふゆ ) だからって、 毎日髪 ( まいにちかみ ) を 洗 ( あら ) わないわけにはいかない。
I can't afford to not wash my hair every day just because it’s winter.

35. 日本語教育 ( にほんごきょういく ) は 理想 ( りそう ) ばかり 言 ( い ) っても 現実 ( げんじつ ) を 無視 ( むし ) するわけにはいきません。
Even if Japanese education only speaks of ideals, we can't afford to ignore reality.

36. 負 ( ま ) けるわけにはいかないよ。
I can't afford to lose!

37. 疲 ( つか ) れたからってやめるわけにはいかない。
You can't afford to quit just because you got tired.

38. そうかといって、 信 ( しん ) じるわけにはいかない。
Even so, you can't afford to believe (that).  

39. 「 明日 ( あす ) まで 待 ( ま ) っていただけないでしょうか」「ええ、でも、 急 ( いそ ) いでいるので、 長 ( なが ) い 間待 ( あいだま ) つわけにはいかないんです」
"Could you wait until tomorrow?" "Yes, but, since I'm in a hurry, I can't afford to wait long." 

40. 断 ( ことわ ) るわけにはいかないので、 命令 ( めいれい ) に 従 ( したが ) おう。
I cannot afford to refuse, and so I’ll follow the order.

In this second installment concerning the particle ながら, we learn about its second most common usage: showing contradiction.

The particle ながら, when used to show contradiction, follows the same restraints on clauses as when it shows simultaneous action. This is because the contradiction involves the same subject and because the two parts of the contradiction still happen in the same time span.

Unlike its primary usage to show non-contradictory simultaneous action, this use of ながら can attach to pretty much anything. You can find it directly after nouns, adjectival nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs.

 The productivity of all these combinations will not be equal in the real world. ながら（も） is most frequently used with verbs, and for everything else it may be follow, creative license is required. Due to the fact that this pattern is more so employed in the written language, you will need to explore this grammar on a case-by-case basis. There are many set phrases that utilize this, some of which are very important. For instance, 残念だ  means “to be unfortunate,” and when used with ながら as 残念ながら, it’s used to mean “unfortunately…”

The addition of the particle も in this expression is only used for emphatic purposes. As such , normally, ながら and ながらも are interchangeable.

1. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) はあんなにいろいろ 苦労 ( くろう ) しながらも、それを 苦 ( く ) にしていない。
Even though she's going through that many troubles, she isn't worrying about them.

2. 湯沢 ( ゆざわ ) さんは 大企業 ( だいきぎょう ) の 社長 ( しゃちょう ) （であり）ながら（も）、 静 ( しず ) かな 落 ( お ) ち 着 ( つ ) いた 物腰 ( ものごし ) が 印象的 ( いんしょうてき ) でした。
Though Mr. Yuzawa is the president of a large corporation, his quiet and calm demeanor is impressive.

3. 真由子 ( まゆこ ) は 初心者 ( しょしんしゃ ) （であり）ながら（も）、 潜在 ( せんざい ) 能力 ( のうりょく ) はかなりあると 思 ( おも ) います。
Even though Mayuko is a beginner, I think that her skills are considerably good. 

4. しかしながら、 予算案 ( よさんあん ) はまだ 修正 ( しゅうせい ) の 余地 ( よち ) がある。
Nevertheless, the budget still has plenty of room for improvement.

5. すでに 一月 ( いちがつ ) を 過 ( す ) ごしてしまったのですが、 遅 ( おそ ) まきながら 初詣 ( はつもうで ) に 出 ( で ) かけました。
I’ve already let January pass, but I belatedly went out to my first shrine visit of the New Year.

6. 讃岐 ( さぬき ) うどんとは 言 ( い ) いながらも、ほとんどは 外国産 ( がいこくさん ) の 小麦 ( こむぎ ) で 作 ( つく ) られている。
Although we call it “Sanuki Udon,” most of it is made with foreign manufactured wheat.

7. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) はダイエットしていると 言 ( い ) いながら（も）ケーキばかり 食 ( た ) べている。
Although she says that she’s on a diet, all she eats is cake.

8. 恥 ( は ) ずかしながら、 自己紹介 ( じこしょうかい ) です。
As embarrassing as this is, this is my self-introduction.

Form Note:  Note that with the adjective 恥ずかしい, the final /i/ is dropped.

9.｛ 我 ( われ ) ・ 自分 ( じぶん ) ｝ながら 情 ( なさ ) けない。
This is deplorable even if I do say so myself.

10. ゾンビーは 死 ( し ) んでいながらも、 生前 ( せいぜん ) と 同 ( おな ) じ 行動 ( こうどう ) を 繰 ( く ) り 返 ( かえ ) します。
Zombies, though dead, repeat the same actions as when they were alive.

11. ゆっくりながら（も）、 完成 ( かんせい ) に 近 ( ちか ) づいています。
Although slowly, I’m approaching completion.

12. 残念 ( ざんねん ) ながら、 記録 ( きろく ) は 更新 ( こうしん ) できませんでした。
Unfortunately, I was unable to break the record.

13. 憲太郎君 ( けんたろうくん ) は 失敗 ( しっぱい ) するとわかりながら（も）、そのままやってしまう 性格 ( せいかく ) だ。
Kentaro has the kind of personality of doing something as is even if he understands that he’ll fail.

14. 神 ( かみ ) が 赦 ( ゆる ) さない 罪 ( つみ ) だと 知 ( し ) っていながらも、 故意 ( こい ) に 続 ( つづ ) けていく。
To continue purposely doing something whilst knowing it is a sin God does not condone.

15. 社員 ( しゃいん ) が 不正 ( ふせい ) を 知 ( し ) りながら 勧誘 ( かんゆう ) していたことがわかりました。
It has been discovered that company employees were soliciting whilst knowing of the illegality.

16. 狭 ( せま ) いながらも、 自分 ( じぶん ) のアパートを 手 ( て ) に 入 ( い ) れることができました。
While small, I’ve obtained my own apartment.

17. 貧 ( まず ) しいながらも、 穏 ( おだ ) やかに 暮 ( く ) らすことができます。
Once can live calmly live whilst being poor.

18. 及 ( およ ) ばずながら、 一生懸命 ( いっしょうけんめい ) やります。
I’ll do it to the best of my ability, as poor as that may be.

19. 完全 ( かんぜん ) ではないながらも、 英語 ( えいご ) の 綴 ( つづ ) りと 音 ( おと ) にはある 程度規則 ( ていどきそく ) があります。
Although not absolute, there are rules to some degree to the spelling and sounds of English.

 もさることながら

もさることながら is a set phrase that follows nouns that states that the one quality is of course true, but a second quality is also just as so.

20. 中華料理 ( ちゅうかりょうり ) は 味 ( あじ ) もさることながら、 健康 ( けんこう ) にいいですよ。
It goes without saying that Chinese food is tasty, but it's also good for you.  

21. 富士山 ( ふじさん ) は 紅葉 ( もみじ ) もさることながら、 冬景色 ( ふゆげしき ) も 綺麗 ( きれい ) です。
The autumn leaves of Mt. Fuji go without saying, but its winter-scape is also pretty.

22. この 車 ( くるま ) は 燃費 ( ねんぴ ) の 良 ( よ ) さもさることながら、ネット 上 ( じょう ) での 評判 ( ひょうばん ) も 高 ( たか ) かったです。
 The gas mileage of this car goes without saying, but its internet review was high as well.

In the patterns ながらに（して）or ながら（の）, the particle ながら may also mean “as” as in staying “as is” in a certain condition.  Just as is the case with the past usage, instances of this meaning ought to be learned on a case-by-case basis.

23. すべての 人 ( ひと ) は 生 ( う ) まれながらに 平等 ( びょうどう ) である。
All men are born equal.

24. 田中 ( たなか ) さんは 家 ( いえ ) に 居 ( い ) ながらにして、 月 ( つき ) に 70 ( ななじゅう ) 万円 ( まんえん ) くらいの 収入 ( しゅうにゅう ) を 得 ( え ) ている。
Mr. Tanaka earns an income of approximately 700,000 yen a month whilst staying at home.

25. 村民 ( そんみん ) は 昔 ( むかし ) ながらの 伝統 ( でんとう ) を 守 ( まも ) り 続 ( つづ ) けている。
The villages continue protecting traditions as they were long ago.

26. 彼 ( かれ ) は 子供 ( こども ) ながらにしっかりしている。
He’s quite level-headed despite being a kid.

27. 夏子 ( なつこ ) は、 自分 ( じぶん ) の 目 ( め ) の 前 ( まえ ) で 起 ( お ) こった 悲惨 ( ひさん ) な 出来事 ( できごと ) を 涙 ( なみだ ) ながらに 語 ( かた ) りました。
Natsuko tearfully spoke of the tragic events that transpired in front of her eyes.

28. いつもながら、 彼氏 ( かれし ) の 料理 ( りょうり ) はとてもうまい。
My boyfriend’s cooking is very delicious as always.

29. この 会社 ( かいしゃ ) は 昔 ( むかし ) ながらの 製法 ( せいほう ) で 豆腐 ( とうふ ) を 作 ( つく ) っている。
This company makes tofu with traditional methods.

30. 人間 ( にんげん ) には、 生 ( う ) まれながらにして 貧富 ( ひんぷ ) の 差 ( さ ) がある。
Humans are born with a disparity of wealth.

～に違いない and ～に相違ない are not necessarily difficult, but there are certain problems that students have. The unusual way it connects to adjective/verb expressions, not properly understanding what can follow them, and not understanding formality differences are the main sources of error. The lesson will be ended with the similar ～に決まっている.

First and foremost, these expressions are both translated as “there is without a doubt that…”. This is the immediate source of confusion because you can add phrases like “I think that” or “probably” in English without causing ungrammaticality. However, with these Japanese expressions, doing so does. First, consider the following defining of these terms.

～に違いない: Not from objective proof or logical speculation, but rather from the speaker’s own experience, this phrase shows one’s intuitive speculation/confidence. With such a bold move, it is without surprise that this is quite strong. It is often used in situations where it's as if one is talking to oneself in attempts to verify one’s own guess or deliberation.  

～に相違ない: Like ～に違いない, it shows intuitive speculation/confidence, but it is more stiff and formal. This formality difference is very important to keep in mind. One reason is that speech modals more akin to the spoken language like the final particle から, which is commonly used with ～に違いない, are not typically used with ～相違ない. This also implies that there is no mistake in it; thus, it gives a more confident tone. Thus, although adverbs like きっと are common with ～に違いない, it is not with ～に相違ない due to the tone. Although perhaps of old logic, some speakers feel this is more so indicative of middle-aged/old men as they are more likely to use old-fashioned expressions, which would not be old-fashioned for them, and fits the traditional tone for masculine speech.

              These patterns attach to phrases in the following manner.

Notice that it does not say Adj/V ＋ こと ＋ に｛違い・相違｝ない. It is a set phrase, and like other phrases with に, the reason for why this is allowed stems from a Classical Japanese grammatical maneuver of using conjugational parts of speech as nominal phrases when in the 連体形. As this base has changed appearance for many items, it's not surprising that in Modern Japanese this technique is limited.

 Examples

1. 政府の報道官の応答はどんなに（か）悔しかったに違いない。
    The response of the government spokesperson was in no doubt overly regrettable.

Grammar Note: In a more literary sense どんなに（か） may be replaced with いかばかりか. Also note that the use of か with this in the first place is hardly ever heard. 

2. 違いない（その通り）、君の言う通りだ。
    That’s right. It's just as you say.

3. この計画の実行は困難に違いない。
    It is without a doubt that this plan's implementation is difficult.

4.  泥棒 どろぼう が入ったに違いない。
    There is no doubt that a robber came in.

5.  馬鹿者 ばかもの には違いないが、責任を取らざるをえないだろう。
     Although it's without a doubt that you're an idiot, there's no other way but to take responsibility.
By  大仏次郎 おさらぎじろう

)

6. 明日は 曇 ( くも ) るに違いない。
    It will definitely be cloudy tomorrow.

7. 社長は天才であることに相違ない。
    There's no doubt that the company president is a genius.

8. 「あの女の人は誰でしょうか」「ケンさんのガールフレンドに違いありません。手を 繋 ( つな ) いで一緒に歩いていますから」
"Who is that woman?" "There's no doubt that she's Ken's girlfriend because they're holding hands walking together".

9. 「あの人は 何語 ( なにご ) の学生でしょうか」「日本語の学生に違いありません。読んでいるものに「新しい」と書いてありますから」
"What language student is that person? "That person is no doubt a Japanese student because the thing (that person) is reading has "atarashii" written on it"

10. 「あの人は日本に住んでいたんでしょうか」「そうに違いありません。日本の新聞を読んでいますから」
"I wonder if that person lived in Japan" There's no doubt about it because he's reading a Japanese newspaper"

11. 「あの女の人は結婚しているんでしょうか」「そうに違いありません。 指輪 ( ゆびわ ) を 嵌 ( は ) めていますから」 
"I wonder if that woman is married" "There's no doubt about it because she's wearing a ring"

～に決まっている means "it is certainly..." and follows nouns, adjectives, or verbs. This speech modal shows 100% certainty and is reflective of 話し言葉. It shows that the speaker is very confident in labeling something as so. It is also used in chastising. 

12. 彼は 嘘 ( うそ ) をついているに決まっている。
      He's certainly lying.

13. 夏は暑いに決まっている。
      It is certainly hot in summer.

14. 負けるに決まってる。(Casual)
      (They) will certainly lose.

These phrases are definitely very similar to each other, but as you will see during the compare and contrast sections of this lesson, there are important differences to keep in mind. 

～に基づいて means "on the basis of/based off of/based on". Its attribute form may either be ～に基づいての or　～に基づいた. Broadly speaking, there are two main usages of Xに基づいてY. The first is "without deterring from a standard/criterion/norm/rule/law X, one carries out/executes an action Y". The other, which is found primarily in the written language, is "having A as a basis/foundation/modal/example/pattern/reference, one does/makes a decision B". 

1. 事実に基づいた 記述 ( きじゅつ ) をする。
    Describe on the basis of reality.

2. 彼女の議論は確かに 証拠 ( しょうこ ) に 基 ( もと ) づいていなかった。
    Her argument was certainly not on the basis of evidence.

3. 明らかなことに基づいた議論の 余地 ( よち ) のない事実。
    Unarguable facts based on obvious things.

4. このマニュアルに基づいて操作します。
    I will operate it based on this manual. 

5. 規則に基づいて処理する。
    To process according to regulations. 

6. さっきの例文に基づいた、もっと複雑なものです。
    These are more complicated ones based off of the previous example sentences. 

7. 証拠に基づいて、 加害者 ( かがいしゃ ) に 死刑 ( しけい ) を言い 渡 ( わた ) した。
    In line with the evidence, the assailant was sentenced to death.

Variant Note: ～に基づいて may also be ～に基づき in stiffer writing.

Grammar Note: For the attribute form, ～に基づいての must only be used when what it precedes is a standard of some sort. If it is not, you must use ～に基づいた instead. 

The  一段 verb 踏まえる means "to be based on". So, ～を踏まえて means "on the basis of" just like ～に基づいて. It can also be seen as ～を踏まえ in the written language. Its attribute form may either be ～を踏まえての or ～を踏まえた. As its original literal meaning is "to tread on" in a defensive posture, it is used after words that can show a basis/foundation/precedent for something. Again, it cannot follow material for reference as a standard. Rather, it must follow an extant basis. This pattern is usually seen in the written language and finds itself in news reports all the time.  

8. 自分の経験を踏まえてこういう。
    To say such based on one's own experience.

9. これまでの状況を踏まえて得た最終結論です。
    This is the last argument gotten based on the conditions up to now.

10. 報告を｛踏まえた・踏まえての｝処理
      Processing based on the report 

Translation Note: 踏まえる may also mean "to tread". 

11. 両足で大地を｛踏まえて・踏んで｝立って！
      Tread on the ground with both your legs and stand!

～をもとにして is used to show that one bases off of the good qualities of something. It does not necessarily have to be 100% congruent with the full truth in the circumstances. It shows willful change, and it is usually shortened in the spoken language to ～をもとに. When this pattern happens to be used as an attribute, it becomes ～をもとにした.

12. 私は 親譲 ( おやゆず ) りの財産をもとにして 富 ( とみ ) を作りました。
      I built my wealth on the fortune from my father.

13. 嘘 うそ をもとにして 行 おこな う。
      To act upon a lie.  

14. 事実を基にして書かれた劇だ。
      It is a play written on the basis of the truth.

漢字 Note: Although this pattern is used both in the spoken and written language, when もと is written in 漢字, you have the options 基, 本, 素, 原, 源, 元, and 下. Thus, the meaning of this expression can be further refined. The first refers to a standard. The second refers to the foundation of something. The third refers to the subject matter. The fourth refers to raw materials. The fifth refers to a source. The sixth refers to the original way. The seventh refers to being under an influence. However, most natives cannot distinguish this well, and this is only knowledge relevant for when reading through literature. 

 ～に沿って

 ～に沿って is used in a physical or cause and effect sense. It can also be seen as ～に沿い is stiff writing, but even here it is considerably rare. The attribute forms ～に沿った and ～に沿っての are slightly different. The former can be used when A fits nicely with B, but there can be some deviance. However, there can be no such deviance with the latter. 

15. 時勢 じせい に沿って生きる。
      To live in consonance of the times.

16. 土手に沿って、 苔 ( こけ ) が生えている。 
      Moss is growing along the embankment.

17. 事実に沿って、話しをしてくださいますか。
      Could you please talk along the facts (of the case)? 

18. 湖に｛〇 沿った・X 沿っての｝公園を歩きました。
      I walked through the park that's alongside the lake.

19. 事業計画に｛沿った・沿っての｝ 実施状況 ( じっしじょうきょう )  
      The status of implementation along the business plan 

20. 僕は川に沿って歩いた。
       I walked along the river.

Variant Note: ～に沿って may be replaced by the suffixes ～ 沿 ( ぞ ) い and ～ 伝 ( づた ) い in the physical sense.

21. 軒 のき づたいに 倉庫 そうこ の裏に廻って行った。
      Along the eaves, I went around the back of the storehouse. 

22. 川伝いに走り回る。
      To run around along the river.

23. 湖畔 こはん 沿いの道路を歩く。
      To walk through the street alongside the lake shore.  

24. 流れに沿うてやがて広野に出ると、 頂上 ( ちょうじょう ) は面白く切り 刻 ( きざ ) んだようで、そこからゆるやかに美しい 斜線 ( しゃせん ) が遠い 裾 ( すそ ) まで伸びている山の 端 ( は ) に月が色づいた。 野末 ( のずえ ) にただ一つの眺めである、その山の 全 ( まった ) き姿を、淡い夕映えの空がくっきりと 濃深縹色 ( ふかはなだいろ ) に描き出した。  
Along the stream, when we at last entered the wide, the moon changed colors in the edge of the mountain, which had a gently beautiful slant with the peak interestingly cutting it that stretched to the far base of the mountain. The light sunset sky sharply drew the perfect view of the mountain for the single view at the corner of the field a light yet deep indigo.   
From 雪国 by 川端康成. 

漢字 Note: The spellings 添う・副う exist. The first is seen with the sense of "addition" and the latter is seen with the sense of "expectation/satisfaction". 

25. 身に添った悲しみ
      The sadness on oneself

26. 花が期待に副って見事に咲いたよ。
      The flowers bloomed splendidly to my expectations.  

～に即して

～に即して is reserved to writing and often very stiff. If used in the spoken language, it is very formal or official sounding. It is frequently used to show that something is based on/along things. In even more formal writing, it can be seen as ～に即し.

27. 時代に即した教育
     Education according to the times

28. 事実に即したドラマ
      A drama in accordance with the facts

29. 法律に即した判断
      A decision in accordance with the law

30. 理念に即した行動 
      Actions in accordance to an ideal

Spelling Note: As for spelling そくして, when the situation is based off of a given fact or observation you use 即して. However, if the situation is based on rules you use 則して, following the meanings of the 漢字 in question. There is a tendency to only use the former.

31. 前例に則して処理する。
      To process according to precedent. 

Attribute Note: The attribute forms available depends on the spelling. If 即して, you can only use に即した. If 則して, you can use either ～に則しての or ～に則した. Although with ～に即して one can't feel any sense of excess or deviance, with ～に則して you can. Thus, the differences in possible attribute forms arise. It's opposite to that of ～に沿って's attribute forms, so be careful. 

 ～にのっとって

～に則って is from the て形 of 則る, which is used to show that one protects some sort of tradition/rule set up in the past. This part of the meaning comes from an old verb のる in combination with 採る. This のり can still be found in many words written as 法: 御法 (humble law), 内法 (inside measure), etc. This is why 則る can also, but rarely, be seen written as 法る. It is no surprise that these two concepts are found in the word 法則 (law; rule).

Whether this pattern is used in the spoken language or not is debatable, but it is very literary/rather stiff written speech modal. It can be used in official situations and in technical terms in relation to rules/costumes. It can also be seen as ～に則り, and the attribute form can be seen as ～に則っての or ～に則った without any restriction. 

32. 遺言状に則って、遺産相続がなされます。
      Inheritance will be carried out according to the will.

33. 憲法に則り、最高裁判所の判断が示される。
      The Supreme Court's decision will be presented in accordance with the Constitution.

34. 仕来りに｛則った・則っての｝儀式
      A ceremony that is in accordance with tradition 

Although this section is not meant to exhaustively nitpick things, by the end of this section you will certainly have a better understanding of the differences between these phrases taught. Note that only those that truly seem synonymous will be addressed here. 

35a. これまでの経験に基づいて、これからも頑張りたいと思う。X
35b. これまでの経験を元にして、これからも頑張りたいと思う。〇

If you paid any attention to the kind of words and situations above with ～に基づいて, you should have noticed that they are all in the same vein in regards to the basis of something in regards to fact or circumstances. The problem with the first sentence, though, will lead us into a serious issue: what are the differences between ～に基づいて, ～をもとにして, ～に沿って, ～に即して, and ～に則って.

1. ～に基づいて, ～に基いて being a less common spelling, shows that an action or circumstance is taking place based on fundamentals, matter at hand, or in combination with some sort of proof.

36. 判決に｛基づいて・基づき｝、刑が執行される。
      The verdict will be carried out according to the punishment. 

37. 人は法に基づいて裁かれる。
      People are judged according/based on the law.

Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like 事実, 証拠, 経験, 規則, 情報, etc. Words that often follow this pattern include 判断する, 行動する, 決める, 作る, 裁く, 言い渡す, 下す, 等.

2. ～をもとにして, on the other hand, shows a meaning of “basing on fundamentals or matter at hand, while one capitalizes/utilizes on it or while one utilizes a certain part…”. The orientation of the expressions, thus, are quite different.  　

38. 資料を基にする。
      To base it on the materials.

39. 人の噂をもとにして判断してはいけないよ。
      I mustn't judge something based on people’s rumors!

40. これまでの経験をもとにして、頑張りたいと思う。
      I wish to try hard based on my experience up to now.

Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like データ, 情報, 事件, 話, 噂, 等. Words that often follow this pattern include 頑張る, 書く, 作る, 対処する, 等.

3. ～に沿って, like the above two, all share the feature of being based on the matter at hand or fundamentals of something, but the peculiar part about this is that the meaning of “without there being a physical distance” is included.

41. 道に沿って花が植えられている。
      Flowers are planted along the street.

42. 塀にそって進んでくれ。(Vulgar command)  
      Move forward along the wall!

43. 川に沿って歩きなさい。  
      Walk along the river.

44. 私の考えにそってやってほしい。
      I would like for it to be done along my ideas.

Usage Note: This pattern is often used after words like 道路, 道, 川, 壁, 歩道, 考え, 意向, 等. Words that often follow this pattern include 行く, 歩く, する, やる, 進む, 等.

              Without getting into the other two remaining patterns, there are still times when all three structures appear to work. However, there will always be nuance differences based on the lines outlined above.

45. 事実｛に基づいて・をもとにして・にそって｝作ってある。
  It was created and based on facts.

             Nuances differences still exist. The first sounds purely factual. The second sounds like it was based on fact but not entirely. The third sounds like it was closely aligned with the facts. In more complex sentences, these differences can be large enough for ungrammaticality calls if violated.

46. 取材｛〇 に基づいて・〇 をもとにして・X にそって｝書かれている。
      It is written based on collected data.

Grammar Note:  ～にそって is bad because collected data could be conflicting. If this were known not to be the case, the unnaturalness would go away. Contextual environment and what kind of word(s) you’re using a pattern with help you put things together within grammatical restrictions.

47. その図面｛〇 に基づいて・X をもと（にして）・X にそって｝、配線工事をお願いします。
      Please do the wiring work according to the blueprint.

48. この判例｛に基づいて・をもと（にして）｝裁判での闘い方を考えてみよう。
       Let's try to consider the ways of fighting in the trial based on this judicial precedent.  

49. 高校で得た経験に基づいて頑張りたい。X　　→ をもとにして
      I will try hard based on experience I got from high school.