今日 IMABI - Advanced II

Some people get utterly confused when they see this pattern. Nothing has really changed, but the implication of using this is slightly different than a phrase with just "Non-past+まで". This shows that one goes all the way to doing action X. This is often used with the particle のに, which means "although". 

1.  県民大会 けんみんたいかい を 開 いてまで 反対 を 訴 うった えたのに、オスプレイは 配備 はいび されてしまった。 
Although we voiced our protest by going as far as to open a meeting of the prefecture citizens, the Ospreys ended up being deployed.
From NHK on January 22, 2012.

2. １０万ドル 払 はら ってまでテキサス大学に入りたくないよ。
I don't want to go to the University of Texas to the point of paying 100,000 dollars.

3. 体を壊してまで、仕事を続ける。
    To continue the/a job until one hurts one's health (literally: until one breaks one's body).

4. 「苦肉の策」は自分の身を傷めてまでも敵を欺くことを指す言葉です。 
"Kuniku no saku" is a phrase that refers to deceiving an enemy even to the point of hurting oneself. 

～まで（のこと）だ shows that nothing else extends out of the action in question. This can be used with the past tense because the particle is literally only being used in the sense of "extent". So, just as you can "to the extent I have done" in English, you can say in Japanese したまでだ. This, though, does not negate the fact that there are still situations just like earlier in which using the past tense with まで would be unnatural. The のこと that is optional in the phrase is essentially just a filler phrase. 

5.  考 え 事 をしていたまでです。
    I was just thinking (and nothing more).  

Used with the negative, まで shows a meaning of "no need to do so". With this, there are two important situations. ～まで（のこと）もない means "there's no need to..." and ～ないまでも means "even though it's not necessary to...at least...". ～たまで is impossible. 

6. それをするまでもない。
    There's no need to do that. 

7.  手紙 に書くまでもないことだから、 電話 で 伝 える。
    Because it's not necessary to write a letter, I'll tell you on the telephone. 

8.  確 かめるまでもなく 明 らかだった。
    It was clear without even having to make sure. 

9. それは言うまでもないよ。
    That goes without saying.

Particles like が and を can follow まで even though まで is a case particle. This, though, has to deal with the fact that this particle was once a noun. In which, this wouldn't be that exceptional. This pattern is somewhat uncommon. After all, this quote comes from a book that is somewhat old. It's simply fun to know that such phrasing is still possible every now and then. 

10.足の下の 畳 たたみ までが 冷 ひ えて来るので、一人で 湯 ゆ に行こうとすると、
    「待って下さい。私も行きます。」と、今度は女が 素直 すなお について来た。
While I was about to go bathe alone since even the tatami mat underneath my feet was getting
cold, she finally came by this time and meekly said, "Wait for me. I'm going too". 

From 雪国 by 川端康成.

When it is after the 連体形 of a verb or in （ほど）までに, it shows to what extent something has reached. Unlike the case までに, what it is after isn't necessarily the actual end point. For instance, the speaker in the example obviously didn't actually die. Having ほど there, which is a particle from a noun meaning "extent", helps. However, the sentence could easily not have it. 

11. わたしは死ぬほど(までに) 苦 くる しんだ。
      I suffered to the death. 

～までも, of course, is quite emphatic, but you may be surprised to find out that ～までをも and ～までもを also exist, and if your teachers deny it, they need to face reality the same way people need to recognize that "ain't" is indeed a word in the English speaking world.

Remember that we are using the adverbial particle まで. When being very formal in one's speech, the particle を surfaces in this pattern. Why? With the change in category, no matter how arbitrary it may seem, it is a logical trigger for を to appear. 

Some speakers don't like either patterns, which is fine. If speakers just don't like one of them, it'll be ～までもを that they don't like. Compounds like までに are fine, but other combinations like はを or もに are just wrong. These facts lead to speakers' opinions of liking ～までをも but not ～までもを.

Nevertheless, both are and have been used, and even the egregious ～までもを  appears in the famous novel 海辺のカフカ by the renowned author 村上春樹. This man is no idiot, and although this doesn't mean he never messes up his grammar, it's highly likely that he thinks it's quite OK and probably used it on purpose. 

12. 日本人までをも 魅了 みりょう した 異文化 いぶんか の 習慣 しゅうかん
      A tradition of another culture that has even fascinated Japanese people 

13. あの 戦争 で愛する 夫 おっと と父をなくし、 終戦後 しゅうせんご の 混乱 こんらん の中で母までもをなくし、あわただしい結婚生活の中で子どもをもうけるいとまなく、 以来天涯孤独 いらいてんがいこどく の 身 み をかかえて生きて 参 まい りました。(Humble, written speech) 
I lost my beloved husband and father in that war, and I even lost my mother in the turmoil after the end of the war, and with there being no time to bear a child in my busy married life, I have since picked myself up and lived on alone with no relatives. 
From 海辺のカフカ 上 by 村上春樹. 

Translation Note: If you go word for word in the original Japanese, you’ll see that it doesn’t match literally with the English translation. However, if you were to give a literal English translation, you’d end up with a bad translation. Sometimes you have to take liberties in translating, and that’s completely fine so long as you still captivate the meaning of the original text as best as can be done. 

Although it would seem that such a relatively small phrase would be easy, ～ての is far from simple. 

What is so complicated about this expression? As you know, て follows the 連用形 as a conjunctive particle to show continuation or parallelism. It has become so important that it is deemed an essential conjugation in Japanese, the て形, or more correctly called the 並列形 in this instance. Essentially how it works is that it attaches to the 連用形 and stops the continuation of the current clause, and you as the listener or reader expect something related to that clause to be said next. 

What about ～ての? の makes an attribute. You may have seen ～についての (about) before. 

1a. 日本について話す。To talk about Japan.
1b. 日本についての話。 A talk about Japan.

In the second it's used as an attribute of 話. There are several such phrases and they're often deemed as fixed postpositions. This, though, doesn't account for everything. In reality there are four broad usages of ～ての.

1. The attribute form for stopping the 連用形 (連用中止法の連体形).
2. As a postposition (the opposite of a preposition)
3. In fixed attribute expressions. 
4. After て phrases used adverbially like 初めて.

However, the hard one is 1. Expressions under the third category are just deemed suffixes. An example is ～きっての (The most...of all).

2. 国内きっての敏腕家
    The most capable person in the country

We also understand expressions under 4 like 初めての.

3. 生まれて初めての海外旅行はメキシコでした。
    My first overseas trip ever was to Mexico.

The problem is how の really functions and the relationship between the 連用形 and 連体形. Say you have the verb 使う. 使う’s 連体形 is still just 使う. So, why can you say something like さいころを使っての遊び (a game played with dice)? One would assume that this could work with anything. However, there are indeed instances where this is unnatural. Now we have to find out what these restrictions are. The previous example could have easily been stated as さいころを使った遊び. 

～ての has a deep tie to the 連体形. After all, it too is an attributive expression. Considering the ways to make an attributive expression in Japanese, you have the following options.

1. Nominal + の ＋ Noun ( 木 こ の 葉 は 　＝　tree leaves)
2. 連体形　＋ Noun　　(きれいな町; 美しい花; 勉強している 生徒 せいと  ）
3. Attributive　(この学校)

Let us not forget about the underlining properties of an attribute and case particles themselves as we examine this pattern further. 

4a. 韓国へ旅行する。To travel to Korea.
4b. 韓国への旅行。 Travel to Korea.
4c. 韓国にの旅行。X 

As you can see, you have to use の for the attribute, and the case particle in this case stays. However, you couldn't have said にの. Consider how the following expressions below change when you change it to an attribute.

5. 高校を卒業する　→　高校の卒業
    To graduate high school　→　High school graduation

6. 彼に死刑を宣告する　→　彼への死刑の宣告
    To give him the death penalty　→ The death sentence given to him

7. 武器が恐ろしい　→　武器への恐ろしさ
    Weapons are dreadful　→　The dreadfulness of weapons

 What about when it seems that both the 連用形 and the 連体形 are logical choices. These are exceptional circumstances, and the noun in question is one that has adjectival qualities. Consider the following. 

8a. 彼女はすごく美人だ。
8b. 彼女はすごい美人だ。(元は間違い)

The first focuses on the quality of beauty while the second modifies the thing. So, it's like the difference between "she's really beautiful" and "she's a real beauty". In other cases such as the ones we've seen, there is a clear back-and-forth change between the 連用形 and 連体形. However, sometimes changing one phrase to fit the other results in an unnatural sentence. This is due to semantic restraints, not the 'grammaticality' of the phrase.

9. うれしい話　〇　→　うれしく話す　X 

What about adverbs? What if they're used like an attribute? はじめて is a prime example of の following. しばらく (in a while) is also a good example. Yet, there is a group of adverbs that never take の even when they are with a noun. These nouns are relative and have to do with an indeterminate quantity. So, one says something like ちょっと前. However, ちょっとの前 is unacceptable. There are still other adverbs that are never used with の like 必ず.

You have now gotten a glimpse of why ～ての may be so difficult given the complexity of the 連体形 itself and how it relates to the 連用形. However, that's not the only thing that makes it complex. What about the many usages of て? 

1. Shows sequence.

10. 家に帰って、晩ご飯を食べる。　 
      To go home and eat dinner.

2. Indicates reason or cause.  

11. 猫に引っ掻かれて、泣いた。
      I got scratched by a cat and cried.

3. Indicates method or means. 

12. 肘をついて、眺める。
      To use one's elbows to view.

4. Comparison or contrast.　

13. 赤くて大きなリンゴ　
      A red and large apple

5. Contradictory condition.　

14. あいつは知っていて教えてくれなかった。
      He knew but didn't tell (me).

6. Shows some sort of condition. This is so in phrases like について. 

Ignoring #6, #1-3 can be used with ～ての. This definitely makes things still difficult. #4 and #5 are illogical with it. Now, let's see what happens when it's used with #1.

～ての: Sequential

When ～ての is used to show sequence, it compensates the particle から. So, it could be replaced by ～てからの or ～たあとの.

14. 2年間休んでの予定通りの復活でした。
      It was a come-back as planned after a rest for two years

15. 水族館を見学しての帰り
      Coming back from visiting an aquarium

16. 行脚を果たしての帰途
      Homeward after completing a pilgrimage

17a. あの日は、遊園地に遊びに行っての緊急事態だったため、現場に行くのに時間がかかってしまった。〇
17b. あの日は、遊園地に遊びに行った緊急事態だったため、現場に行くのに時間がかかってしまった。X
That day, because there was an emergency situation after having already gone to have fun at an amusement park, it took some time to get to the scene. 

All of these can be rephrased with the 連体形. This phrase can lead to something being incidental.

18. 番組は見てのお楽しみだ。
The fun in the show comes from watching it.

Phrase Note: This phrase indicates that one wouldn't understand the fun had you not seen it. This phrase, incidentally, no pun intended, can lead to very strong statements.

19. それは１０日たってのことだ。
      That is something that lapsed over 10 days.

20. 許しを得｛ての・た｝上で
      Upon receiving permission

21. 知っ｛ての・た｝上で
      Upon knowing/realizing

However, when the transition shown by て is a simple sequence, it's very hard to use ～ての. This is because as these examples have shown, it presents some sort of premise, and then something strong is supposed to come after it. 

 ～ての: Reasoning

When て indicates reasoning or cause, the relation is general. Since X is so, Y happens. Phrases like 心配しての言葉 can be rephrased to 心配して言った言葉. However, this is not as simple as it looks. Rather, there are three possible consequences.

1. ～ての can be interchangeable with the 連体形
2. ～ての can be replaced by the 連体形 but there is a change in meaning
3. The two are not interchangeable and only one is correct. 

This is very context driven, but it isn't a totally random assignment. Sometimes context must be there for ～ての to be understood. If words seem to be missing if you translate back into English, the Japanese is probably bad. 

22. 借金返済に追われ｛ての・た｝無理心中
      A suicide forced by being pressed into repaying one's debts

23. アメリカ生活に疲れ｛ての・た｝情緒的な日本回帰
      An emotional return to Japan from being tired of American life.

You can also see ～てのことだ. In similar examples, you can't just replace it with ～た. That's because you lose any sense of reasoning with something else. The の replaces a verb that can be ascertained from the context. The same goes for ～てのものだ.  

24. いつも食料や水を貯めておくのは、｛自然災害・地震・緊急事態｝に備えてのことだ。
Why I always store food and water is in case of a [natural disaster/earthquake/emergency situation].

25. 明日からのことを考えての準備だ。
　　  That's in preparation for things tomorrow.

26. アベノミクスの政策が失敗に終わったら、日本の経済はすぐに復活できないかもしれない。景気が戻るには50年はかかる可能性があるだろう。なので、私が現在のアベノミクスに対して警鐘を唱えるのは、３０年先の生活を心配してのことだ。 
If the Abenomics policy were to end in failure, the Japanese economy would possibly not be able to quickly recover. There is also the possibility that it could take even 50 years for the economy to recover. So, as for me personally, what raises an alarm at the current Abenomics is worrying about my life thirty years down. 

 ～あっての

 ～あっての is a very important application that states that without X, there is no Y. が is usually dropped. 

27. 苦労あっての喜び。
　  Joy only from having gone through hardship. 

28. 海あっての漁業なんだから、海を汚してはいけないぞ。
      As this is a fishing industry since there is the ocean, we mustn't pollute it. 

29. 両親あってのことです。
      It's all thanks to my parents. 

30. 命あっての物種 (Proverb)
      Where there is life, there is hope.  

31. 企業あっての組合
      A union in existence thanks to the company

 ～ての: Means and Condition

This is actually the most prevalent usage and the easiest to understand. It is often interchangeable with ～ながらの.

32. たくさんの人を案内しての登山は大変だった。
     Hiking while guiding a lot of people was hard. 

33. 恥をさらしての暴露
      A revolution while disgracing oneself

Just as was the case before, there are instances where you can replace it with the 連体形, cases you can but there is a change in meaning, and cases where they're not interchangeable. 

When Interchangeable:

34. 仕事を離れ｛ての・た｝個人的な関係
      A personal relation aside from work  

35. 予想を踏まえ｛ての・た｝決定
      A decision based on forecast

36. 大統領にちなん｛での・だ｝恐竜の名前
      A dinosaur name after the president

37a. 試験に向けての勉強
37b. 試験に向けた勉強
　　　 Study directed for exam  

     This lesson is about the particle もの and the combination particles associated with it, not about the nouns 物 and 者, although all three words share the same origin. 

     The particle もの, colloquially as もん, may mean "because". This usage is used extensively by women and small children as an alternative to から and may be used conjunction or as a final particle. 

1. この 景色 ( けしき ) は 懐 ( なつ ) かしいですね。私たちが若い時に出会ったところですもの。
    This scenery is nostalgic isn't it? It's because this is the place we met when we young.

Sentence Note: Scenes like above would be commonly heard among old people.  

2. ねぇ、ねぇ、あのビデオゲーム買ってよ。どうしてもあたしほしいんだもの。
    Hey, hey, can you buy that video game? Cause I've got to have it.

      The particle もの has several other usages.

3. よく泳いだもんだ。
    I used to swim.

4. 丸木 まるき は水に 浮 う くものだ。
    A log will float in water.

5. 鯨 くじら になりたいものです。
    I wish I were a whale. 

6. もっとご両親は 敬 ( うやま ) うものですよ。
    You should be more respectful to your parents.

7. 私、 成人 ( せいじん ) になったんだもの、少しぐらいお酒を飲んでもいいでしょう。
    I'm an adult now, so isn't it alright for me to have a little liquor to drink?

    Below is a chart of combination particles with the conjunctive particle もの. 

Usage Notes:

1. ～ものを signifies the unsatisfactory feeling of the speaker.

2. ～ないものか shows a feeling of expectation for the realization of an idea and ～たものか shows a sense of confusion. 

3. ～からいいようなものの and ～ば・といいようなものの express "though it's OK because" and "although it would be for the better if" respectively.

 Examples

8. いくつかの 欠点 ( けってん ) はあるものの、彼は天才です。
    Even though he has a few flaws, he's a genius.

9 あんなやつに負けるもんかい。
   Like I'd lose to that kind of guy!

10. 掴 つか めるものなら、掴んでごらん。
      If you think you can grab it, go right ahead.

Word Note: ごらん is just like みせてもらう.

11. 負ければ 済 ( す ) むものの、そこまで自分をおとしめることができなかった。
Although it would have ended better if he would have lost, he could not lower himself to such a degree.

12. あんまり 嬉 ( うれ ) しかったもんで、何をしてるのかは忘れちまった。(Really casual)
      I was so happy that I forgot what I was doing.

13. 一言だけ話せばよかったものを、しゃべりすぎたので、事件に 巻 ( ま ) き込まれてしまった。
Although it would have been alright to speak just a word, I accidentally got involved into the matter because I chattered too much.

14. 聞いてくれればよかったものを。
      If only he would have listened.

15 さっさと警察に届けりゃいいものを。
     If only I had given it to the police promptly.
From 冷たい誘惑 by 乃南アサ.

Contraction Note: りゃ is the contraction of れば. 

16. もっとうまくできないものか？
      Can't you do better?

17. この仕事は誰に 頼 ( たの ) んだものか。
      To whom was this work entrusted?

18. できるもんなら、 代 ( か ) わってやりたい。
      If it's possible, then I'd like to switch out (for you).

19. 気づいたからいいようなものの、他の人がいたらどうしただろうか。
      Though it is all right that I noticed, what would I do if there were other people?

20. 先生に 厚 ( あつ ) かましくも 口答 ( くちごた ) えをしようものなら、 大目玉 ( おおめだま ) を 食 ( く ) らうでしょう。
      Should you even have the nerve to talk back to the teacher, you'll surely get scolded severely.

28. 火事になろうもんなら、大変だぞ。
      It would be grave should there be a fire.

29. 借金で困っていた友人を、助けようと思えば助けられたものを、見捨ててしまった。
If only I had thought to help my friend who was struggling with debt, I could have helped her, but I accidentally ran out on her.

30. 休めばよかったものを、無理をして働きすぎたので、病気になってしまったよ。
Although I would have been fine if I took a rest, I unreasonably worked too much, so I ended up getting ill.

31. あたしの気持ち、君にわかってたまるものか！
      How could you ever know how I'm feeling!?

     ばかり is a very important particle and is in many combination particles.

     ばかり is used in several important usages and may be ばっかり, ばかし, or ばっか in colloquial settings.

1. Shows degree.

1. リンゴを二つばかりください。
    Please give me (approximately) two apples.

2. 旅行の 費用 ( ひよう ) は全部で５０万円ばかりかかりました。
    The total cost of the trip came to around 500,000 yen.

3. 運動選手さんは１０キロばかり 競走 ( きょうそう ) に走りました。
    The athlete ran about 10 kilometers in the race.

2. Shows limitation.

4. 見渡 す限り一面雪ばかりでした。
    There was nothing but snow as far as I could see.

5. 弟は外で遊んでばかりいます。
    My younger brother does nothing but play outside.

6. 兄はコンピューターを使ってばかりいる。でも、毎度クラッシュしてしまうから、お返しされるんだ。
My older brother is always just using the computer. But, since every time he uses it it crashes, I get payback.

7. 国際問題は悪くなるばかりだ。
    The international problem is just getting worse.

8. その子犬はいつも眠ってばかりいる。
    That puppy is always just sleeping.

9. 家にばかりいないで、たまには外出しよう。
    Don't just stay home. Let's go out once in a while.

10. 突然 とつぜん の 停電 ていでん で人々は逃げ場を求めながら 右往左往 うおうさおう するばかりだった。
      People could only move in confusion while looking for a place to escape by the sudden blackout.

3. Either after ～ん, which must follow the original 未然形 for all verbs, or the 連体形, ばかり may also show that "something is as if it is going to happen". It does not have to literally be the case. This pattern may also be used to show an excessive/extreme degree.  

11. 雨が降り出さんばかりの空 模様 ( もよう ) だ。
     The sky is as if it's about to rain.

12. 袋 ふくろ ははち切れるんばかりにつまっていた。
      The bag was filled as if it was about to burst.

13. ボールは爆発せんばかりに、 膨 ( ふく ) らんでいた。
      The ball expanded as if it were about to explode.

14. 彼は爆発せんばかりに、 頬 ( ほお ) を膨らませていた。
      He was about to explode (in anger). 

Historical Note: The ～ん comes from the old negative ending ～ぬ, and the pattern ～ぬばかりだ was equivalent to しないだけで・・・したかと思うほど. It eventually got confused with the old volitional form ～ん・む, which brought about the sense that it looks like it's about to happen.  

Reading Note: 頬 can also be read as ほほ.

4. After ～た it shows what is yielded right after something. It is of a moment. In other words, the event in question can't have a long duration. So, things like 徹夜したばかり are wrong.

15. ２０歳になったばかりだ。
     I just turned 20.

16. 僕はたった今着いたばかりだ。
     I only just arrived.

17. 寝たばかりのようだ。
     It looks like he just fell asleep.

18. 寝たばかり。X
     I just slept.  

19. はい、昨日覚えたばかりですから。
     Yes, it's because I just learned it yesterday.  

20. 起きたばかりです。
      I just woke up. 

21. 私は習ったばかりの日本語を使ってみました。
      I tried using Japanese I had just learned.

22. 学期が始まったばかりなので、まだあんまり忙しくない。
     Since the semester started, I'm still not that busy. 

23. さっき食べたばかりなのに、またすぐお 腹 ( なか ) が空いてしまった。
     Although I had just eaten a little while ago, I got hungry again right away.

24. この本は出版されたばかりだ。
     This book has just been printed.

25. 昼ご飯を食べたばっかりなのに、もうお腹がすきました。
     Although I just ate lunch, I'm already hungry.

読み物: アイヌ語を守ろう！

アイヌ語は、単語のひとつひとつにも物語のような 概念 ( がいねん ) があるらしいですね。アイヌ語が消えて行くのはもったいないです。アイヌ語は 絶滅 ( ぜつめつ ) の 危機 ( きき ) にある言語ですが、まだ 一筋 ( ひとすじ ) の希望の光があると思います。言語は人間のごとく生きているものです。アイヌ語の命が 絶 ( た ) たれたならば、それは世界は人間性を形成する大事な部分も失ってしまうほどのことなのです。それぞれの言語は 独自性 ( どくじせい ) を保っていて、代々受け 継 ( つ ) がれた情報のかたまりであり、それが記号化されたものです。アイヌ語が絶滅する可能性は高いですが、きっと 蘇 ( よみがえ ) らせられるでしょう。アイヌ語のネイティブは 高齢者 ( こうれいしゃ ) ばかりになってしまっているので、テープなどで保存していると以前聞いたことがありますが、どうでしょうかね…。

1. What is the overall gist?

2. Find and explain the usage of ばかり.

3. What is the Ainu language described as?

4. What has been done according to the reading to preserve it?

Reading Note: 代々 ＝　だいだい・よよ. The last reading is less common.

     The chart below illustrates the usages and meanings of the combination particles of ばかり. Then, the chart will be followed by examples.

Grammar Note: ～ばかりに is only seen after a dependent clause. All other ばかり are simply the two separate particles used right next to each other.

 Examples

26. あの終電車に乗ったばかりに、事故に 遭 ( あ ) った。
      I was in the wreck only because I road on the last train.

27. 犯罪 はんざい の場にたまたま居合わせたばかりに、事件に巻き込まれてしまうということはよくあります。
Getting dragged into a case solely due to the fact that you just happen to be at the crime scene happens a lot.

28. 彼はお金がないばかりに友だちも少ない。
      His friends are even few solely because he has no money.

29. 頭ばかりか胸も痛いです。
      Not only my head but my chest hurts, too.

30. 彼は 教授 ( きょうじゅ ) にゴマをするばかりか、カンニングまでしていい点を取ろうとするそうです。友人ではあるけど、信じられないよ。
I hear that not only butters up his professors, but even goes so far as to cheat to try to get a good grade. Although he's a friend, I can't believe it. 

31. 日本語ばかりでなく韓国語も勉強したいです。
      Not only do I want to study Japanese, but I also want to study Korean.

32.  喉 のど が 渇 かわ いたばかりじゃなく、お腹も 空 す いた。
      Not only am I thirsty, I'm also hungry.

     In this lesson we will learn about the particles って, たって, and だって which are necessary in improving your colloquial Japanese skills.    

This is a very important feature of casual Japanese. The particle と is very frequently seen as って in spoken Japanese. Although it originally came from the contraction of という, it has since taken on と's function as a citation particle.  

1. 難 ( ) しいって 思 ( ) った。
    I thought it was difficult.

2. 負 ( ) けたよって 言 ( ) われてもなあ。
    Even if you would have said you lost.

3. お 母 ( ) さんにどうぞよろしくって伝えてくださいね。
    Please say nice to meet you to her mother.

4. 田中 ( ) さんって 知 ( ) ってる？
    Do you know Mr. Tanaka?

気 ( ) にしなくてもいいってことだ。
It's nothing you may need to be worried about.

"...の...の（と）" is used to list things in contrast or emphatically and "...の...ないの（って）" shows excess. As is noted, sometimes using it may be uncommon or even old-fashioned. 

5. 何 なん のかんのと 文句 もんく をつける。
    To complain of what and that. 

6. 死ぬの生きるのと 大騒 ( おおさわ ) ぎだ。
    Dying and living is all turmoil. 

7. うるさいのなんのって、 耳 ( ) が聞こえなくなったほどだ。
    It's so loud to the point I've lost my hearing. 

8. 無職 むしょく になるの、 離婚 りこん するの、 散々 さんざん な目にあったな。（Not so common)
    Becoming unemployed and divorced, I've met a lot of terrible things hasn't it! 

9. 寒いの暑いのと 言 ( ) っていないで、ジョギングは 毎朝 ( まいあさ ) しなさい。
    Don't complain about it being hot or cold, you must go jogging every day. 

10. 痛 いた いの 痛 くないのと、 飛 と び 上 あ がってしまったよ。（古い言い方）
      It hurt so bad I accidentally jumped up.

The Adverbial Particle って: Emphatic

It takes up the subject with slight exclamation and is equivalent to というのは. It's also used in repeating what someone said. 

11. オレって、なんてバカなんだ。
      I'm such an idiot.

12. 誰 ( ) かに 出会 ( ) える 時 ( ) っていつもこうだ。
      Meeting someone is always the same way.

13. したくないって、どういう 意 ( ) 味 ( ) だ。
      You don't want to do it, what do you mean?

14. 誰 ( ) が｛殺人・ 殺人者・人殺し・犯人｝ ( ) かって、あいつに 決 ( ) まってるよ。
      It's settled that who the, um, murderer is that guy over there.

Word Note: 殺人者 ( ) is a rather formal word and not used much in actual conversation, although it is common in books. 人殺 ( ) し is a graphic word that bring images of the bloody crime scene. So, it is considered a sensitive word and often avoided. 犯人 ( ) , although it only means "criminal", it is the most likely word to use in this situation, and most people would realize automatically that the sentence is about murder anyways. 

The Final Particle って: All of the Above

15. すぐ 帰 ( ) れってさ。
      He said like to hurry home.

16. 間 ( ) に 合 ( ) うだろうって。
      They said they would probably make it on time.

　　　With a high intonation, it shows confirmation. 

17. 離婚 ( ) するんですって。
      You're getting divorced?

18. 病気 ( ) だったんですってねー。
       It was sickness, right?

In a downward intonation, it passes down an assertion strongly. It is often used to (re)assure someone like in Ex. 19. 

19. 大丈夫 ( ) だって。
      It's OK.

20. きっと 合格 ( ) するって。
      I'll surely pass.

The Conjunctive Particle って

1. When used with ～た.

• Even if you; no matter how.
• っていい, ってかまわない, and って 差 ( ) し 支 ( つか ) えない to show permission.

21a. どう 叫 ( ) んだって、 聞 ( ) こえない。(Less common)
21b. どれほど 叫 ( ) んだって 聞 ( ) こえない。
        Even if you somehow shout, he can't hear.

22. どう 見 ( ) えたって、 校長 ( ) は 校長 ( ) だ。
      No matter how you look at it, the principal is the principal.

23. やったっていいじゃん。
      Isn't it OK to do it?

Grammar Note: When used with ん, って is often changed to て. It's also common as ってー.

     For the most part, たって is ～た + って. However, there is one usage of たって that makes it unique.

The Conjunctive Particle たって

     Often with a 促音 そくおん , it is used as a colloquial variant of the phrase といっても meaning "even if you say that". There are several set expressions that accompany this.

24. ハワイに行こうったって、どこも 満員 ( ) だよ。
      Even if we're going to Hawaii, everywhere is full.

25. 無 ( ) くったって、 生 ( ) きてはゆけるだろう？
      Even if you don't have it, wouldn't you still go on living?

26. そうだと 思 ったとしても、そうと 決 まったわけじゃないだろ。
      Even if you thought that, that doesn't mean that it's supposed to still occur that way you know.

Grammar Note: Of course, there are some situations in which たって would be unnatural.  

     At times だって is merely a combination of だ and って or the voiced version of the particle だって. However, だって is also seen in unique situations. 

The Adverbial Particle だって

1. It presents something with an added feeling of rebuttal in response to an assumption and is equivalent to もまた--"even (does)". 

27. 犬 ( ) だってそれくらい 分 ( ) かるだろう！？
      Even a dog should understand that!?

28. 僕 ( ) だって 辛 ( つら ) いのだ。
      Even I'm bitter (about it).

29. 乞食 こじき にだって 言 い 分 ぶん はある。
      Even a beggar has one's say.

2. "AだってBだって" arranges like things with the hint that other things are applicable as well. 

30. 学校だって、 大学 ( ) だって、 同 ( ) じところじゃないか。
      Isn't it the same place, whether it's school or college?

31. ペットを飼うなら犬だって猫だって同じようなもんじゃないか。
      If you're going to raise a pet, isn't a dog or cat the same?

32. イルカだってクジラだって哺乳類なんだよ。
       Whether a dolphin or a whale, it's still a mammal.

33. 子どもだって大人だって遊びたいときは思いっきり遊ぶんだよ。 
      Whether a kid or an adult, when people want to play, they play with all their heart.  

34. 宝石 ( ) だって 着物 ( ) だって 買 ( ) う。
      To buy things whether it is jewelry or clothing.

3. With a feeling of rebuttal and attached to a phrase showing high value, it strengthens the meaning of a sentence and is equivalent to さえも meaning "even also". 

35. うそ（だ）、 決定的 ( ) な 証拠 ( ) だってあるぞ。
      Lie, there's even definitive evidence.

36. クラスにはピアニストだっているよ。
      There's even a pianist in the classroom.

4. Attached to a phrase showing the "smallest" of something and followed by a negative expression, it is used to show complete negation. 

37. いとこにとってはこんな 大学 は 一日 ( ) だって 我慢 ( がまん ) できないだろう。
      My cousin wouldn't last in this kind of a college for even a day.

38. 僅 わず かだって 許 されない。
      Not even a little bit will be forgiven.

5. Attached to an interrogative, it is used to mean "all without exception", and is equivalent to "interrogative + でも". 

39. いつだっていいさ。
      Anytime is good.

40. 誰 ( ) だってそんなこと｛は・を｝したく（は）ないね。
      Nobody wants to do a thing like that.

6.  何 ( ) だって asks for a reason with a feeling of criticism--why". 

41. 何 ( ) だってそんなことをしたんだ。
      Why did you do even such a thing as that?

The Final Particle だって

1. Directly quotes the words of someone of which one thought to be unsuitable and is equivalent to だと.

42. 彼 ( ) は、 金 ( ) を 貸 ( ) さなかったんだって。
      He said, I didn't lend any money.

43. 知 ( ) らなかったんだって。
      You didn't know?

44. 遊 ( ) びたくないだって？
      You don't want to play?

Phrase Note: This usage is a contraction of だとて.

2. のだって quotes what someone said. 

45. あの 田中 ( ) さん、 行 ( い ) きたくないんだって。
      Mr. Tanaka says he don't want to go.

46. あいつは 来 ( ) るんだって。
      He's coming?

3. Asks about the information of something passed down when attached to a phrase of question or doubt. 

47. 何 ( ) だって？
      What was it?

48. 食費 ( ) はいくらって？
      How much was the food expenses?

Variant Note: だって may be changed to ですって in polite context.

These phrases are all quite similar, but it's important to understand how they don't overlap.

からある basically shows that a something is a certain amount, but in other contexts it may imply that the quantity is large or even more than the number phrase being used. It is used with phrase involving length, width, wideness, depth, weight, size, and quantity.

However, because it is generally not used as much and is very 書き言葉的, it may be best to avoid it in the spoken language in order to not sound unnatural. For instance, 1a is completely grammatically correct, but many speakers would prefer you say 1b.

1a. 2000からある漢字 〇/△
1b. 2000もの漢字　〇
　　 As much as 2000 Kanji

One application that has not been affected much is when からある is preceded by some time phrase.

2.｛古く・昔｝からある物語
　　A story from a long time ago

3. この神社は鎌倉時代からあります。
　　This temple is from the Kamakura Period.

Before seeing more examples, it’s important to know about the similar ～からの and ～からする which find themselves used more than ～からある. ～からの has some overlap with ～からある at times, but its main purpose to be used with cost and expenses as well as basic number statements in which ある would be inappropriate like in Ex. 13. ～からする is used to show prices as in purchases.

4. 17兆6000億ドルからの国債
　　National debt of over 17 trillion, 600 billion dollars

5. 年間一万ドルからする特別教室
　 Special classroom costing ten thousand dollars annually

6. この地方では毎年100㎝からある積雪のため、スキーが盛んだ。
Due to snow accumulation of 100 cm or more each year in this region, skiing has flourished.

7. 夜の間に、10トンからある大量のバイオ 廃棄物 ( はいきぶつ ) がゴミ捨て場に捨てられていた。
　　During the night, more than 10 tons of biological waste was dumped in the dump site.

8. 今年は大雪で、ダラスでも30㎝からある積雪が観測された
　　This year has had heavy snow, and 30 cm has been recorded even in Dallas.

9. その男の人は50キロからある荷物をひょいと肩に 担 ( かつ ) いで、大型トラックに載せた。
The man hoisted luggage of more than 50 kilos with ease on his shoulders and loaded it into the semi-trailer.  

10. インドネシア諸島は1万3000からある島で構成されている。
　　　The Indonesian Isles is composed of more than 13,000 islands.

11. 安くても大体1頭3、4万円からする。
　　　Even if it’s cheap, a head will basically cost 3-4000 yen.

12. 数時間前に、40キロからある荷物をいくつも運んだので、体中が痛くて動けない。
Several hours ago, I was lifting a lot of luggage over 40 kills, and so my whole body aches, and I can't move.

13.  千人 ( せんにん ) からの 観光客 ( かんこうきゃく ) が、 毎日水族館 ( まいにちすいぞくかん ) を 訪 ( おとず ) れます。
　　 As many as a thousand tourists visit the aquarium every day.

14. 木の 重 ( おも ) さは２百トンからある。
　　 The tree's weight is as much as 200 tons

15. 身長6メートルからあるキリンが、突然、目の前に現れた。
　A giraffe of over 6 meters in height suddenly appeared in front of my/our eyes.

16. 10メートルからある 大木 ( たいぼく ) が集落の家のある方向へ倒れてきた。
A large tree of 10 meters came crashing down in the direction where a village house was.

17a. 50 台 ( だい ) からのトラックが 並 ( なら ) んでいる。
17b. 50 台以上 ( だいいじょう ) のトラックが並んでいる。（もっと 自然 ( しぜん ) ）
        There are as many as fifty trucks lined up.

Warning Note: Do not confuse this からある with the particle から being followed by ある meaning a certain distance.

18. 至るとは、始点からある 経路 ( けいろ ) を 辿 ( たど ) って終点に到達するという意味です。
　　 “Itaru” means following a certain route from the start point and reaching the end point. 

In this sixth lesson on verbs that can either be used intransitively or transitively, we will focus on verbs that have unique strings attached to them. There are three broad categories that we’ll be looking at.

1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action.

Each verb to be looked as must be done so on an individual basis. Although they can all more or less be classified into one of these three points, they’re special for reasons that must be carefully considered.

The verb 間違う has the basic meaning of “to be mistaken/incorrect.” Essentially, a certain situation and or certain results are different (than what they should be). Its transitive form is 間違える. 間違える incidentally either means “to fail/make a mistake (in)” or “to mistake something for something else.”  The latter meaning greatly influences how it is used to refer to mistakes. When the mistake in question was made by confusing how it should have played out, 間違える is the verb you should use.

Now, the issue at hand is the severity of 間違える and how it affects the use of 間違う. To many speakers, 間違える is very direct. After all, it intrinsically implies that another means was actually right and what was done was wrong. Consequently, some speakers use 間違う instead to lessen the emphasis of the mistake at hand. Incidentally, speakers also tend to use 間違う more often in contexts that involve abstract issues. The more physically ascertainable the mistake is, the more likely 間違える will be used instead of 間違う.

1. 君 ( きみ ) が 間違 ( まちが ) っている。
You’re mistaken.

2. 人 ( じん ) は 何故人生 ( なぜじんせい ) を 間違 ( まちが ) うのか。
Why do people mess up life?

3. 息子 ( むすこ ) の 育 ( そだ ) て 方 ( かた ) を 間違 ( まちが ) ったんじゃないかと 悩 ( なや ) んでいます。
I'm worried that I might have messed up raising my son.

4. 粘着テープを貼る場所を｛間違った・間違えた｝けど、貼り直せますか。
I messed up where I should stick the adhesive tape, but can I re-stick it (where it should have been)?

5. 振込 ( ふりこみ ) の 内容 ( ないよう ) を｛ 間違 ( まちが ) った・ 間違 ( まちが ) えた｝が、 取 ( と ) り 消 ( け ) せますか。
I messed up something in a wire transfer, but can I cancel it?

6. ワープの 場所 ( ばしょ ) を｛ 間違 ( まちが ) った・ 間違 ( まちが ) えた｝！
We’ve messed up where we were supposed to warp to!

7. 戸籍届書 ( こせきとどけしょ ) の 記入 ( きにゅう ) を｛ 間違 ( まちが ) った・ 間違 ( まちが ) えた｝のですが、どうしたらいいでしょうか。
I made a mistake in filling out a family registry notification form, but what should I do?

8. 分岐 ( ぶんき ) を｛ 間違 ( まちが ) った・ 間違 ( まちが ) えた｝ 車 ( くるま ) が 急 ( きゅう ) に 車線 ( しゃせん ) （を） 変更 ( へんこう ) して 事故 ( じこ ) を 起 ( お ) こしてしまった。
A car which had made a mistake at a fork in the road suddenly switched lanes and caused an accident.

Although 終わる and 終える are intrinsically the intransitive and transitive verbs for “to end/finish” respectively, the difference between them is actually not this simplistic. There are in fact three primary patterns with them that you must learn.

1.  …が終わる: Something ends, finishes, completes, or is terminated, but any agent involved in the situation would only be implicitly implied.
   
2. …を終わる: To end something as the natural end to a means. The situation at hand has been completed.
   
3. …を終える: To purposely end something regardless if the matter at hand hasn’t been completed.

The forceful nature of the verb 終える is amplified by the use of the particle を.

10. 訓練 ( くんれん ) が 終 ( お ) わりました。
Practice ended.

11. 訓練 ( くんれん ) を 終 ( お ) わりました。
I finished practice.

12. 訓練 ( くんれん ) を 終 ( お ) えました。
I ended/finished practice.

13. 仕事 ( しごと ) が 終 ( お ) わりました。
Work (has) ended.

14. 仕事 ( しごと ) を 終 ( お ) わりました。
I finished work.

15. 仕事 ( しごと ) を 終 ( お ) えました。
I ended/finished (the) work.

16. 聞 ( き ) き 取 ( と ) り 練習 ( れんしゅう ) を 終 ( お ) わりました。
I finished my listening comprehension practice.

17. うちの 子供 ( こども ) は 今年 ( ことし ) 、 義務教育 ( ぎむきょういく ) を 終 ( お ) わりました。
My child(ren) finished their compulsory education this year.

終える is very similar in meaning to 終わらせる. Both indicate stopping something, but 終わらせる implies that you are purposely stopping something once it has been completed. It’s not always the case, however, that 終える represents a reckless ends to a means. When it is used, though, it does give a more poignant, crisp end. This makes it satisfactory for when you express finishing something and you want to relish the moment that you got through the situation.

18. 最後 ( さいご ) の 稽古 ( けいこ ) を 終 ( お ) えました。
I finished my last practice.

19. 無事 ( ぶじ ) に 結婚式 ( けっこんしき ) を 終 ( お ) えました。
I’ve safely finished the wedding.

20. この 鳥 ( とり ) は 巣立 ( すだ ) ちを 終 ( お ) えたばかりみたいですね。
This bird seems to have just completed leaving the nest, huh.

21. 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) を 早 ( はや ) く 終 ( お ) わらせたい。
I want to quickly finish my homework.

22. 科学 ( かがく ) は 戦争 ( せんそう ) を 終 ( しゅう ) わらせることができるのでしょうか。
Could science bring an end to war?

23. 愛 ( あい ) を 終 ( お ) わらせない 方法 ( ほうほう ) はひとつしかない。
There is but one way of not bringing an end to love.

24. この 仕事 ( しごと ) は 明日 ( あした ) の 朝 ( あさ ) までに 終 ( お ) えないと、まずいですよ。
If we don’t finish this work by tomorrow morning, things won’t be good.

終えさせる means “to make…end.” The haphazard nature of ending something before it is complete is often implied. It may also simply give the “let” nuance of the causative. These two different nuances are contrasted in the two examples below.

25. 静 ( しず ) かに 近親者 ( きんしんしゃ ) の 死 ( し ) を 受 ( う ) け 入 ( い ) れ、 自然 ( しぜん ) に（かつ） 穏 ( おだ ) やかに 生 ( しょう ) を 終 ( お ) えさせることが、 近親者 ( きんしんしゃ ) としての 最後 ( さいご ) の 務 ( つと ) めです。
The final duty of a close relative is to calmly accept a close relative’s death and to naturally and gently let the individual end life.

26. ただ 刑期 ( けいき ) を 終 ( お ) えさせるだけなら、 何 ( なん ) の 反省 ( はんせい ) もなくまた 犯罪 ( はんざい ) を 犯 ( おか ) すと 思 ( おも ) う。
I think that if you simply just end (the person's) sentence, (that person) will commit crime again without any self-reflection.

The verb for to change, as you’ve known it to be, is かわる and かえる for the intransitive and transitive sense respectively. Although this is true, をかわる is also possible. Before we investigate that aspect further, however, it’s important to understand the various nuances of かわる and かえる, especially because they have unique spellings.

・変わる・変える: For general change; the character 変 is used for showing changes in state/appearance/etc. As “state” is the broadest means of describing situation, it is what you should use if you are not sure if any of the following spellings are more appropriate.
・代わる・代える: For indicating substitution; the character 代 is used to show that some role/situation/standing/position is switched/being substituted for something else.
・替わる・替える: For indicating switching to something new; the character 替 also indicates switching, but the switching is permanent and it’s to something deemed new(er).
・換わる・換える: For exchanging; the character 換 is used to show exchanging one thing for another of the same value. It is especially common in reference to currency exchange.

27. 途中 ( とちゅう ) で 予定 ( よてい ) が 変 ( か ) わりましたので 納期 ( のうき ) を 早 ( はや ) めてください。
Plans have changed midway, so please hasten the delivery day.

28. 今 ( いま ) までの 方法 ( ほうほう ) を 変 ( か ) えました。
We’ve changed our method that we’ve used up until now.

29. 現地 ( げんち ) で 日本円 ( にほんえん ) の 現金 ( げんきん ) をユーロに｛換・替｝えるのは、 為替 ( かわせ ) レートが 悪 ( わる ) いので、 出来 ( でき ) るだけ 避 ( さ ) けたほうが 良 ( よ ) いです。
When you exchange Japanese yen for euro locally, the exchange rate is bad, and so it’d be better that you avoid that as much as possible.

30. 山手線 ( やまのてせん ) に 乗 ( の ) り 換 ( か ) えました。
I transferred trains to the Yamanote Line.

31. 商品券 ( しょうひんけん ) をお 金 ( かね ) に 換 ( か ) える。
To exchange a gift certificate into money.

32. あの 老舗 ( しにせ ) は 代替 ( だいが ) わりして 息子 ( むすこ ) さんが 後 ( あと ) を 継 ( つ ) いだらしいです。
It appears that that old shop has been taken over by the son.

33. 4 ( し ) 月 ( がつ ) になって 年度 ( ねんど ) が｛替・変｝わった。
Now that it’s April, the fiscal year has changed.

34. 順番 ( じゅんばん ) を｛変・替｝えました。
I changed the ordering.

35. Tシャツを 着替 ( きが ) えました。
I changed T-shirts.

36. 先 ( ま ) ずは、 社長 ( しゃちょう ) に 代 ( か ) わってご 挨拶申 ( あいさつもう ) し 上 ( あ ) げます。
First of all, I would like to say a few words on behalf of the (company) president.

37. 自分 ( じぶん ) を 人質 ( ひとじち ) の 身代 ( みが ) わりとして 差 ( さ ) し 出 ( だ ) す。
To present oneself as a sacrifice for hostage(s). 

38. 今 ( いま ) から 石油 ( せきゆ ) に 代 ( か ) わる 資源 ( しげん ) に 切 ( き ) り 替 ( か ) えていくことが 必要 ( ひつよう ) です。
It is necessary that we switch to a resource in place of oil starting now. 

39. これを以って 挨拶 ( あいさつ ) ｛に・と｝ 代 ( か ) えさせていただきます。
With this, I’d like to give my salutations.

Sentence Note: 挨拶｛に・と｝代えさせていただきます literally implies that you are using whatever you said prior as the thing it attaches to. It is yet another way to add a layer of politeness in addresses and the like.

The use of を変わる instead of を変える is meant to lessen the direct volition of the agent in the change/switch.

40. 早く職を変わりたい。
I want to change jobs soon.

41. ○○さんに 電話 ( でんわ ) を 代 ( か ) わっていただけますか。
May I speak to Mr. ##?

42. 健太郎 ( けんたろう ) が 座席 ( ざせき ) を 代 ( か ) わった。
Kentaro switched seats.

Spelling Note: As you can see, when かわる indicates a meaning closer to “to switch,” then the spelling 代わる becomes more appropriate. In Ex. 42, Kentaro simply switched seats with someone, likely with someone sitting directly next to him.

43. 健太郎 ( けんたろう ) が 座席 ( ざせき ) を 変 ( か ) えた。
Kentaro changed (the) seats.

Nuance Note: This sentence has two possible interpretations. Kentaro may have changed seating arrangements that may or may not include his own seat, or he simply switched seats but solely following his own volition to do so. For instance, this would be appropriate if he were sitting next to someone talking loudly on his cellphone and got up to sit in a seat far away from that individual. 

44. 先生 ( せんせい ) が 生徒 ( せいと ) たちの 座席 ( ざせき ) を｛ 変 ( か ) わった X・ 変 ( か ) えた｝。
The teacher changed the students’ seats.

45.｛ 転校 ( てんこう ) しました・ 学校 ( がっこう ) を 変 ( か ) わりました｝。
I changed schools.

Phrase Note: 転校する is more common.                                      

46. 今 ( いま ) の 仕事 ( しごと ) がつまらないんなら、 仕事 ( しごと ) を 変 ( か ) えたらどうでしょうか。
If your current job is so boring, how about changing jobs?

47. アメリカでは、 高校卒業 ( こうこうそつぎょう ) から 40 ( よんじゅう ) 歳 ( さい ) くらいまでの 間 ( あいだ ) に 5 ( ご ) 回 ( かい ) くらい 仕事 ( しごと ) を 変 ( か ) わることも 例外 ( れいがい ) ではありません。
In America, it is not exceptional even for someone to switch jobs five or so times from the time one graduates high school to the time one turns 40.

48. 4 ( し ) 月 ( がつ ) から 仕事 ( しごと ) が 変 ( か ) わって 広島 ( ひろしま ) から 名古屋 ( なごや ) に 転居 ( てんきょ ) しています。
My job changed starting April, and so I’ve changed residence from Hiroshima to Nagoya.

49. 出産後 ( しゅっさんご ) 、 仕事 ( しごと ) が 変 ( か ) わりました。
My job changed after giving birth.

Nuance Note: In Ex. 49, it’s not necessarily the case that the speaker switched jobs. It could just be that her duties at her existing job changed due to having become a mother.

50. 楽器 ( がっき ) を 変 ( か ) わりたかったら、 変 ( か ) わればいいんです。
If you want to switch instruments, switch. 

In this seventh installment about verbs that are both intransitive and transitive, we’ll look at another handful of verbs that deserve special attention. In this lesson, all verbs discussed are typically taught as being primarily used with に, but their usages with を mustn’t be overlooked. As was the case last lesson, these usages with を typically fall under the three categories below:

1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action.

The verb 負ける is generally an intransitive verb meaning “to lose (to).” It can even mean "to break out in a rash (due to shaving, etc.). However, it has one transitive meaning that is equivalent to 安くする. In other words, in addition to meaning to succumb to defeat, it can also be mean reducing the price of something.

1. 試合 ( しあい ) に 負 ( ま ) けました。
I lost (in) the match.

2. 肌 ( はだ ) が 弱 ( よわ ) いので、どうしてもかみそりに 負 ( ま ) けて 出血 ( しゅっけつ ) してしまいます。
My skin is tender, and so no matter what, I break out from razors and end up bleeding.

Spelling Note: かみそり may also be spelled as 剃刀.

3. 値段 ( ねだん ) を 負 ( ま ) けて 売 ( う ) ることの 不合理 ( ふごうり ) に、 全 ( まった ) く 我慢 ( がまん ) できません！
I absolutely can't stand the irrationality behind lowering the price and selling it!

4. 日本 ( にほん ) やアメリカなどでは、 値段 ( ねだん ) を 負 ( ま ) けてもらうということが 少 ( すく ) ない。
There are few instances in Japan and America where you get the price down on something.

5. 仲介手数料 ( ちゅうかいてすうりょう ) を 負 ( ま ) けてくれない 不動産会社 ( ふどうさんがいしゃ ) が 多 ( おお ) い。
There are many real estate companies that won’t lower brokerage fees.

当たる creates an intransitive-transitive verb pair with 当てる. Unfortunately, things get complicated due to the fact that they both have several nuances and because 当たる also happens to have transitive uses that cannot be replaced by 当てる.

当たる (intrs.): To be hit; to be equivalent to; to win (a lottery); to be stricken (by heat, food poisoning, etc.); to hit well (baseball); to feel a bite (in fishing); to be bruised (fruit); to be called upon (by a teacher); to be assigned to; to be right on the money; to lash out at.

6. 石 ( いし ) がガラスに 当 ( あ ) たっても 割 ( わ ) れ 辛 ( づら ) く、もし 割 ( わ ) れたとしても 石 ( いし ) がガラスを 貫通 ( かんつう ) しない。
Even if rocks hit the glass, it’s hard to crack. Even if it were to crack, the rock won’t penetrate the glass.

7. 長期間 ( ちょうきかん ) 日が 当 ( あ ) たらないと、うまく 育 ( そだ ) ちません。
If it isn't exposed to the sun for a long period of time, it won’t grow well.

8. スーツの 前 ( まえ ) ボタンを 締 ( し ) めないのは、 失礼 ( しつれい ) に 当 ( あ ) たりますか。
Would it be rude not to fasten the front button of a suit?  

9. 親 ( おや ) を 悪 ( わる ) く 思 ( おも ) うだけでも 罰 ( ばつ ) が 当 ( あ ) たります。
Even by merely thinking bad about your parents, you’ll incur punishment.

10. 雨 ( あめ ) の 天気予報 ( てんきよほう ) が 当 ( あ ) たってよかった。
I’m glad that the rain forecast was right on.

11. 通常 ( つうじょう ) 、 要人 ( ようじん ) の 身辺警護 ( しんぺんけいご ) に 当 ( あ ) たっている。
Normally, (the individual) is assigned to the personal protection of important persons.

12. フグに｛当たったら・中ったら｝、首から 下 ( した ) を 土 ( つち ) に 埋 ( う ) めろ。
If you get poisoned by a puffer-fish, bury yourself from the neck down in dirt.

Spelling Notes: フグ can alternatively be spelled as 河豚. When used to mean “to be stricken,” 当たる can seldom be seen spelled as 中る.

13. それは｛あたってる・ 傷 ( いた ) んでる｝だけでしょう。
That’s just bruised, you know.

Nuance Note:  A lot of speakers do not understand what is meant by あたる when used in the context of indicating that food produce is bruised. This is because although it is in dictionaries, it is dialectical in nature. Some people will be confused because of how に当たる can indicate food poisoning. After all, one way of saying “food poisoning” itself is 食中り. When using 当たる to indicate bruising, there is a nuance of the bruising being caused by the produce hitting each other, likely during transport. To avoid confusion, using the verb 傷む is your best bet.

当たる (trans.): To check (by comparison); to probe into; to shave.

This usage typically takes に as well; however, when used to mean “to check (establishments),”を is typically used.

14. イライラして 旦那 ( だんな ) や 息子 ( むすこ ) や 犬 ( いぬ ) にまで 当 ( あ ) たってしまいました。
I got irritated and lashed out at my husband, son, and even my dog.

15. 原本 ( げんぽん ) に 当 ( あ ) たって 校正 ( こうせい ) してほしいです。
I’d like you to proofread by checking with the original script.

16. 詳細 ( しょうさい ) は 本人 ( ほんにん ) に 当 ( あ ) たってください。
For details, please see the person himself.

17. 小さな個人経営のお店を当たっています。
I’m checking small businesses.

18. 他 ( ほか ) を 当 ( あ ) たってください。
Please check (another store).

19. 顔 ( かお ) を 当 ( あ ) たりますか。
Shall I shave your face?

Word Note: In certain lines of industry, instances of 剃る (to shave), 擂る (to grind), and other things resembling the two in pronunciation such as 鯣・スルメ (dried squid/cuttlefish) have そる・する replaced by 当たる.  As for スルメ, it turns into 当たりめ.

当てる (trans.): To hit; expose; to put (on/against); to allot; to make a hit (in a lottery); to guess (an answer); to call on; to sit (on a cushion); to address.

20. 座布団 ( ざぶとん ) を 当 ( あ ) ててください。
Please sit on the floor cushion.

21. 和語 ( わご ) に 漢字 ( かんじ ) を 当 ( あ ) てる。
To attach Kanji to native Japanese words.

22. 観葉植物 ( かんようしょくぶつ ) を 昼間 ( ひるま ) に 屋外 ( おくがい ) で 日 ( ひ ) に 当 ( あ ) てていたら、 枯 ( か ) れてしまった。
When I had left my decorative plant exposed to the sun outdoors in the afternoon, it died.

23. ポイントが 貯 ( た ) まると、このポイントを 利用 ( りよう ) して 航空費 ( こうくうひ ) や 旅費 ( りょひ ) に 充 ( みつる ) てることができるようになったりします。
When points build up, by using them you become able to do things like allot them to air fares and travel expenses.

Spelling Note: When used to mean “to allot,” あてる is spelled as 充てる.

24. 今度 ( こんど ) は 母 ( はは ) に 宛 ( あ ) てて 手紙 ( てがみ ) を 書 ( か ) きました。
I wrote a letter addressed to my mother.

Spelling Note: When used to mean “to address” as in a document of some sort, あてる is spelled as 宛てる.

25. 授業中 ( じゅぎょうちゅう ) 、 当 ( あ ) たりたくないと 思 ( おも ) って、 先生 ( せんせい ) と 目 ( め ) を 合 ( あ ) わせないようにしていたら、 当 ( あ ) てられてしまった。
During class while I was trying not to lock eyes with the teacher so that I wouldn’t get called on, I got called upon.

26. うまく 当 ( あ ) てた。
I guessed right.

The verb 喜ぶ can incidentally be used with either に or を. The nuance is slightly different and so it is often the case that you can switch up the particles in most instances without making a grammatical error. に喜ぶ means “to be delighted/pleased with” and を喜ぶ means “to rejoice at/congratulate.”

27. 相手 ( あいて ) の 幸 ( しあわ ) せを 一緒 ( いっしょ ) に 喜 ( よろこ ) ぶと、 好感 ( こうかん ) が 持 ( も ) てる。
When you celebrate another person’s happiness together, you give a positive vibe.

28. 私達 ( わたしたち ) は 何故他人 ( なぜたにん ) の 不幸 ( ふこう ) を 喜 ( よろこ ) ぶのか。
Why is it that we rejoice at other people’s misfortune?

29. 震災 ( しんさい ) を 喜 ( よろこ ) ぶようなブログなどがネット 上 ( じょう ) に 流 ( なが ) れているのも 事実 ( じじつ ) である。
It is also true that there are blogs and such circulating on the internet that seem to rejoice at natural disasters.

30. 美味 ( おい ) しいデザートに 喜 ( よろこ ) ばない 女性 ( じょせい ) はいません。
There isn’t a woman who isn’t pleased with a delicious desert.

31. 大 ( おお ) きな 成果 ( せいか ) に 喜 ( よろこ ) ぶこともあれば、うまくいかず 落胆 ( らくたん ) し、 葛藤 ( かっとう ) を 繰 ( く ) り 返 ( かえ ) した 経験 ( けいけん ) も 多 ( おお ) くあるでしょう。
If you're ever delighted at great results, then you will surely also have experienced things not going well, getting discouraged, and then having repeated those troubles.

32. 選手 ( せんしゅ ) たちは 久々 ( ひさびさ ) の 勝利 ( しょうり ) に 喜 ( よろこ ) んでいる。
The athletes are delighted about their long overdue victory.

When used with the particle に as an intransitive verb, 怒る means “to get mad at…” As a transitive verb with the particle を, it means “to scold.” There is also the verb 叱る which also means “to scold,” but 叱る is thought to be constructive whereas 怒る is usually not constructive.

33. 子供 ( こども ) に 怒 ( おこ ) って、 怒鳴 ( どな ) ってしまいました。
I got mad at my kid and accidentally shouted at him/her.

34. 飛行機 ( ひこうき ) の 遅 ( おく ) れに 怒 ( おこ ) った 女性客 ( じょせいきゃく ) が 客室乗務員 ( きゃくしつじょうむいん ) に 暴行 ( ぼうこう ) を 加 ( くわ ) える 様子 ( ようす ) を 撮影 ( さつえい ) した 動画 ( どうが ) が 炎上 ( えんじょう ) している。
A video is receiving a flood of criticisms which captures a female passenger who got angry at the plane’s delay assaulting a flight attendant.

35. 実際 ( じっさい ) の 自分 ( じぶん ) に 怒 ( おこ ) っているのに、 妻 ( つま ) の 浪費癖 ( ろうひくせ ) に 怒 ( おこ ) っていると 信 ( しん ) じ 込 ( こ ) んでいる 夫 ( おっと ) は 多 ( おお ) い。
There are many husbands who are convinced that they are mad at their wives’ reckless spending habits even though they are mad at their actual selves.

36. 部下 ( ぶか ) を 怒 ( おこ ) った 感情 ( かんじょう ) はどれくらい 継続 ( けいぞく ) するのか。
How long do your feelings continue from having scolded an underling?

37. 生徒 ( せいと ) を 怒 ( おこ ) ったあと、あなたはどうしますか。
What do you do after scolding a student?

38. 犬 ( いぬ ) を｛ 叱 ( しか ) る・ 怒 ( おこ ) る｝ときは 鼻 ( はな ) を 叩 ( たた ) けばいいですか。
When scolding a dog, should you hit its nose?

39. 自分 ( じぶん ) のために 怒 ( おこ ) る、 相手 ( あいて ) のために 叱 ( しか ) る。
You tell someone off for oneself; you reprimand someone for that person’s sake.

40. 子供 ( こども ) を 感情的 ( かんじょうてき ) に 怒 ( おこ ) ってしまった。
I accidentally emotionally scolded my child(ren).

In this eighth and final installment on verbs that are both intransitive and transitive, we will master five more verbs that deserve special attention. As has been the case for the last two lessons, their usages with the particle を can more or less be categorized in the three categories below:

1. Either the intransitive or the transitive usage is relatively new in the language. Meaning, some speakers will think it’s wrong to use it a certain way but many speakers still do.
2. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to implicitly show a connection between an agent and an action.
3. The use of the verb in a transitive sense is done so to emphasize the agent’s volition in said action. 

The verb 垂れる is an intransitive verb with the basic meanings of “to hang/droop/drip” and its transitive pair is 垂らす, whose basic meanings are “to suspend/hang down/dribble.” However, the two happen to overlap each other in the sense of “to hang/droop.” When the act of suspension is involuntary to a reasonable degree but there is an agent for said suspension, 垂れる is used over 垂らす. This is because 垂らす shows an active effort to suspend something.

When you use 垂れる, there is a general nuance that the object is not totally detached from the agent. In a sense, it’s as if it is an extension of said agent. For instance, when you’re dangling a fishing lure into a lake, it and the rod that’s undoubtedly in your hand can be viewed as an extension of your hand.  

Ironically, however, there are some things that even if they are somehow appended to you, you can't use 垂れる because there’s no way you aren’t purposely hanging said thing down. One example of this is “bangs” (前髪). Men and women alike who have bangs consciously let their bangs down. Even if they aren’t, idiomatically speaking, only 前髪を垂らす is used.

When, then, can only 垂れる be used? In addition to the basic meanings described already, it can also be used as a condescending variant of the verb 言う (to say).

1. 彼 ( かれ ) は 両腕 ( りょううで ) を 垂 ( た ) れて 静 ( しず ) かに 立 ( た ) っていた。
He stood silently with both arms drooping.

2. 両腕 ( りょううで ) を 前 ( まえ ) に 垂 ( た ) らします。
Dangle both arms in front of you.

Nuance Note: This would be something that you would hear in an exercise program.

3. 彼 ( かれ ) は 口 ( くち ) をだらりと 開 ( ひら ) けたまま 涎 ( よだれ ) を 垂 ( た ) らしている。
He is slobbering all over with his mouth languidly open.

4. 文句 ( もんく ) を｛ 垂 ( た ) れる・ 言 ( い ) う｝な。
Don’t complain.

5. 無意識 ( むいしき ) のうちに 涎 ( よだれ ) が 垂 ( た ) れているのは 何 ( なに ) かの 疾患 ( しっかん ) でしょうか。
Is unconsciously having slobber drool a sign of some ailment?

6. 日本 ( にほん ) では、 女性 ( じょせい ) が 前髪 ( まえがみ ) を 垂 ( た ) らして 額 ( ひたい ) を 出 ( だ ) さずに 横 ( よこ ) に 流 ( なが ) すのが 流行 ( はや ) っている。
In Japan, for women who have bangs, putting them sideways without covering the forehead is a fashion trend.

7. 何 ( なに ) かにつけて ウンチク ( うんちく ) を 垂 ( た ) れまくるやつって 本当 ( ほんとう ) にうるさいよね。
People who just have to say anything and everything they know are really annoying, huh.

Spelling Notes: ウンチク can seldom be spelled as 薀蓄 or 蘊蓄. Also, うるさい may seldom be spelled as 五月蝿い or 煩い.

8. 醤油 ( しょうゆ ) を 垂 ( た ) らしてしっかり 火 ( ひ ) を 通 ( とお ) してください。
Drip soy sauce on it and heat it thoroughly.

9. 子犬 ( こいぬ ) がしっぽを｛ 垂 ( た ) れて・ 垂 ( た ) らして｝ 歩 ( ある ) いている。
The puppy has his tail down while walking.

The verb 気付く means “to notice/recognize/become aware of” and historically only takes the particle に. However, some people use the particle を instead. There are a few grammatical situations, though, that must be put into consideration.

Orthography Note: 気づく may alternatively be spelled as 気付く.

1. When using the causative, there is a direct object and an indirect object. The direct object is who you’re making realize what. The “what” is the indirect object. However, there is no requirement that the indirect object always be in the sentence. This will make it seem as if 気づく is just used with を.

10. 彼氏 ( かれし ) を 口臭 ( こうしゅう ) に 気 ( き ) づかせるためにどうしたらいいですか。
What should I do in order to get my boyfriend to notice his bad breathe?

11. 口臭 ( こうしゅう ) ｛に・を？？｝ 気 ( き ) づかせるためにどうしたらいいですか。
What should I do in order to get him/her to notice his/her bad breathe?

Sentence Note: In Ex. 10, you could imagine the sentence making sense without 口臭 if it were already mentioned and it was clear in context that that is the indirect object. In Ex. 11, the lack of the direct object causes confusion to some speakers as there is a tendency for を to be used to emphasize the agent’s role in an action. However, in this case, Ex. 11 would literally mean that it’s the breathe odor you’re trying to convince of something, which doesn’t make sense.

12. 写真 ( しゃしん ) は 気 ( き ) づいていないこと｛に・を？｝ 気 ( き ) づかせる。
Pictures make you notice things you hadn’t noticed before.

Sentence Note: Ex. 12 has the same issue as Ex. 11 when wo を is used. The one being made to notice is “you” and not the “things one hadn’t noticed before.”

2. The use of を instead of に is often used when using the passive. However, even in this situation, the particle に is still the ‘correct’ one to use. The use of を highlights the seriousness of the situation. Although who you're noticed by and what is being noticed end up both being marked by に, this poses no real problem to the naturalness of a sentence.

13. 女性 ( じょせい ) は 髪 ( かみ ) を 切 ( き ) ったこと｛に・を ?｝ 気 ( き ) づかれると 嬉 ( うれ ) しいものですか。
Are women happy when their haircuts are noticed?

14. 男性 ( だんせい ) でも 髪 ( かみ ) を 切 ( き ) ったこと｛に・を ?｝ 気 ( き ) づかれたら 嬉 ( うれ ) しいもんですよ。
Even men are happy when their haircuts are noticed.

15. 何かを探っていること｛に・を ?｝気づかれたら、夫婦喧嘩になることはもとより、浮気調査を行うことさえ危うくなってしまう場合があります。
There are instance in which being found out about searching for something results even with performing an infidelity investigation becomes dangerous, let alone the marital disputes.

16. 男性 ( だんせい ) は、 自分 ( じぶん ) が 嫉妬 ( しっと ) していること｛に・を?｝ 気 ( き ) づかれるのが 恥 ( は ) ずかしいと 思 ( おも ) っている。
Men think it’s embarrassing when they’re noticed being jealous.

3. Sometimes 気づく is part of an adverbial phrase, which makes it seem it’s with を but it isn’t.

17. 多 ( おお ) くの 人 ( ひと ) が、「 女 ( おんな ) らしさ」「 男 ( おとこ ) らしさ」を 気 ( き ) づかないうちに信じ 込 ( こ ) んでいるのです。
Many people believe implicitly in “femininity” and “masculinity” without even realizing it.

4. Another instance of を being used with 気づく is in 気づいてもらう. This is done to avoid two に in the same sentence, but as mentioned in the second point, this isn’t a valid grammatical issue.

18. どうしても 元 ( もと ) カレに 復縁 ( ふくえん ) したいこと｛に・を?｝ 気 ( き ) づいてもらいたいんです。
No matter what it takes, I want my ex-boyfriend to realize that I want to reconcile things with him.

19. 鈍感 ( どんかん ) な 相手 ( あいて ) に 自分 ( じぶん ) の 好意 ( こうい ) ｛に・を ?｝ 気 ( き ) づいてもらいたい。
I want this dull person to notice my affection to him/her.

20. 陰口 ( かげぐち ) を 言 ( い ) う 人 ( ひと ) は バレ ( ばれ ) てるの｛に・ △ ( さんかく ) を・Ø｝ 気 ( き ) づいてないの？
Do people that gossip not even realize that the cat’s out of the bag?

The intransitive verb “to live” is used to mean so in several ways. It can be taken literally, be used to mean “to be live” as in baseball, indicate what you dedicate your life to, etc. When used with the particle を, 生きる  indicates a more dynamic outlook on living out one’s life on a certain stage. 

21. ウナギは 各地 ( かくち ) の 湖 ( みずうみ ) や 河川 ( かせん ) に 住 ( す ) む 淡水魚 ( たんすいぎょ ) ですが、 淡水 ( たんすい ) だけでなく 海水 ( かいすい ) でも 生 ( い ) きることができます。
The eel is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes and rivers everywhere, but it it doesn’t live in just fresh water. It can even life in seawater.

Spelling Note: ウナギ may also be spelled as 鰻.

22. 趣味 ( しゅみ ) に 生 ( い ) きる 若者 ( わかもの ) はダメ！
Young people who subsist on their hobbies are no good!

23. 過去 ( かこ ) を 捨 ( す ) てて 今 ( いま ) を 生 ( い ) きてください。
Throw away the past and live the now.

24. 悔 ( く ) いのない 青春 ( せいしゅん ) を 生 ( い ) きてほしい。
I want you to live out a regret-free youth.

25. 他人 ( たにん ) の 人生 ( じんせい ) を 生 ( い ) きないと 決 ( き ) めましょう。
Decide not to live another’s life.

26. 仕事 ( しごと ) でただ 定時 ( ていじ ) を 待 ( ま ) つ 人生 ( じんせい ) を 生 ( い ) きたくない。
I don’t want to live a life where I’m just waiting for the end of the day at work.

Word Note: 定時 refers to the set time one gets off at in Ex. 26.

27. 子供 ( こども ) のような 探求心 ( たんきゅうしん ) を 持 ( も ) って 人生 ( じんせい ) を 生 ( い ) きれば、 世界 ( せかい ) があなたを 楽 ( たの ) しませてくれるでしょう。
If you live your life with the heart of exploration like that of a child, the world will surely delight you.

The verbs 触る and 触れる both mean “to touch, “and they can both incidentally be used with either に or を, but that doesn’t mean these four combinations are freely interchangeable.

1. に触る: 触る specifically refers to purposely touching/feeling something, usually using one’s hand(s). In a non-literal sense, it can also mean “to be involved with.” Additionally, when spelled as 障る, it refers to hurting someone’s feelings. In these senses, the typical particle used is に.

28. 暗 ( くら ) い 中 ( なか ) で 手 ( て ) が 何 ( なに ) かに 触 ( さわ ) った。
Something touched my hand in the dark.

29. コタツの 中 ( なか ) で 誰 ( だれ ) かの 足 ( あし ) が 私 ( わたし ) の 足 ( あし ) に 触 ( さわ ) った。
Someone’s leg touched my leg inside the kotatsu.

Spelling Note: コタツ may also be spelled as 炬燵 or 火燵.

30. 授業中 ( じゅぎょうちゅう ) に 机 ( つくえ ) の 下 ( した ) で 足 ( あし ) を 前 ( まえ ) に 伸 ( の ) ばして 座 ( すわ ) っていたら、 何 ( なに ) か 冷 ( つめ ) たい 物 ( もの ) が 足 ( あし ) に 触 ( さわ ) った。
As I was sitting with my legs extended in front of me under the desk during class, something cold touched my legs.

31. 神経 ( しんけい ) に 障 ( さわ ) ることを 言 ( い ) う 相手 ( あいて ) にはどう 対応 ( たいおう ) したらいいのか。
How should you handle people who say things that get on your nerves?

32. その 文 ( ぶん ) の 何 ( なに ) があなたの 癪 ( しゃく ) に 障 ( さわ ) ったの？
What about that sentence offended you?

33. 展示物 ( てんじぶつ ) には 触 ( さわ ) らないでください。
Please do not touch the display.

34. 怪 ( あや ) しいものには 触 ( さわ ) らないほうがいいよ。
It’s best not to touch/get involved with suspicious things.

Sentence Note: If this were spoken out-loud, one could interpret this as referring to people because もの can also be 者.

35. 米 ( べい ) ドルには 触 ( さわ ) らないほうがいいかな。
It’s maybe best not to touch the American dollar.

2. を触る: The use of を is meant to emphasize the purposeful touching/feeling of something. It is frequently used when expressing touching in which the thing/person touched is not a fan of being touched.

36. 彼氏 ( かれし ) が 胸 ( むね ) を 触 ( さわ ) ってきてとても 嫌 ( いや ) です。
I really hate it when my boyfriend comes and touches my chest.

37. 唐辛子 ( とうがらし ) に 触 ( さわ ) った 手 ( て ) で 鼻 ( はな ) を 触 ( さわ ) ってしまいました。
I accidentally touched my noise with the hand that had touched cayenne pepper.

38. 男性 ( だんせい ) が 女性 ( じょせい ) の 鼻 ( はな ) を 触 ( さわ ) りたがるのはなぜでしょうか。
Why is that men want to touch women’s noses?

39. この 剣 ( けん ) の 刃先 ( はさき ) を 触 ( さわ ) ってみて。
Try feeling the edge of this sword.

40. ウサギを 触 ( さわ ) ろうとしたら、 触 ( さわ ) らせてくれなかった。
When I tried to touch the bunny, it wouldn’t let me touch it.

Spelling Note: ウサギ may alternatively be spelled as 兎.

3. に触れる: In a literal sense, 触れる means “to lightly touch.” In a less literal sense, it encompasses other sense of “touch” such as “to touch on.” You may see it in plenty of set phrases like 目に触れる  (to cross one’s eyes). Another important application is when it means “to violate” as in a law or regulation of some sort.

41. 肌 ( はだ ) が 珊瑚 ( さんご ) に 触 ( ふ ) れたら 痒 ( かゆ ) みとかぶれで 眠 ( ねむ ) れなくなった。
When my skin touched the coral reef, I ended up not being able to sleep because of itchiness and a rash.

Spelling Note: かぶれ may also be spelled as 気触れ.

42. それ 以後 ( いご ) も 折 ( おり ) に 触 ( ふ ) れて 3 ( さん ) 人 ( にん ) で 活動 ( かつどう ) している。
Even since then, the three of us campaign/do activities occasionally.

Phrase Note: 折に触れて is a rather literary set phrase meaning “occasionally.”

43. 研究室 ( けんきゅうしつ ) で 働 ( はたら ) いている 限 ( かぎ ) りは 臨床 ( りんしょう ) の 問題 ( もんだい ) に 触 ( ふ ) れる 機会 ( きかい ) はほとんどありません。
So long as you are working in the research lab, there are hardly any opportunities to personally touch on clinical issues.

44. 「 自分 ( じぶん ) は 神 ( かみ ) より 優 ( すぐ ) れている」と 口 ( くち ) に 出 ( だ ) せば、 神 ( かみ ) の 怒 ( いか ) りに 触 ( ふ ) れる 事 ( こと ) になる。
If you verbalize that oneself is superior to gods, you will offend the gods.

45. 賄賂防止条例 ( わいろぼうしじょうれい ) に 触 ( ふ ) れる 可能性 ( かのうせい ) がある。
There is the possibility that it violates the bribe prevention ordinance.

41. 法律 ( ほうりつ ) に 触 ( ふ ) れる 行為 ( こうい ) をしても、 犯罪者 ( はんざいしゃ ) にならない 法律 ( ほうりつ ) は 驚 ( おどろ ) くことにわんさかあります。
Surprisingly, there are a lot of laws that you won’t become a criminal for even if you do something that violates the law.

4. を触れる: The basic pattern of using 触れる can be viewed as being “object + に + body part +が・を・で.” The use of が implies zero volition in a body part breezing against something. As for Ex. 42, you might wonder why で isn’t used. If で were used, then the listener could just interpret the request as simply banning touching with one’s hands but touching with one’s feet is fair game. By using を, this is not the first that would come to mind. It simply recognizes a willful act of lightly touching something and that act of touching happens to be carried out by one’s hands.

42. 手 ( て ) を 触 ( ふ ) れないでください。
Please don’t touch with your hands.

43. 路上 ( ろじょう ) にあったアライグマの 死骸 ( しがい ) を 棒 ( ぼう ) で 触 ( さわ ) ってみた。
I tried touching the carcass of a raccoon that was on the side of the road with a stick.

44. はやり目は、その名の通り、非常に感染力が強く、感染者が手を目に触れて、テーブルに手を置いて、そこが乾燥し切る前に別の人が手を触れて、その人が手を目に触れたら、感染してしまう可能性もあります。
Pink eye, literally 'endemic eye' (in Japanese, has an extremely great infectious capacity; by an infect person touching his/her hand on the eyes and then placing said hand on a table, if another person touches the table by the hand before it can fully dry out and then touches his/her eye, there is even the potential of that person getting infected.

5: が触れる: In the phrase 脈が触れる, the verb 触れる is used to mean “to feel a pulse.” In this context, there is no に or を used with it.

45. 手首以外 ( てくびいがい ) で 脈 ( みゃく ) が 触 ( ふ ) れるのはこめかみ、 喉仏 ( のどほとけ ) の 両脇 ( りょうわき ) 、 肘 ( ひじ ) の 内側 ( うちがわ ) 、 大腿 ( だいたい ) の 付 ( つ ) け 根 ( ね ) 、 膝 ( ひざ ) の 裏 ( うら ) 、 足 ( あし ) の 甲 ( こう ) などが 代表的 ( だいひょうてき ) な部分です。
Aside from the wrists, representative places where you can feel your pulse include the temple, both sides of one’s Adam’s apple, the root of one’s thigh, the back of the knee, and the top of the feet.

Spelling Note: こめかみ may seldom be alternatively spelled as 顳顬.

The reduplication of words (jōgo 畳語) is a phenomenon found in Japanese in which the same morpheme (unit of meaning) is doubled to create a new yet related word. This is seen virtually across all parts of speech in Japanese to varying degrees. Before you think this is only limited to some form of slang, it must be noted that most words created by doubling something are actually quite important.

When a noun is doubled, the resultant phrase is a plural phrase denoting a large variety of said noun. Essentially, only nouns that have been conceptualized by the Japanese as something that is both numerous and highly varied may be pluralized in this way.

i. 山 ( やま )
   Yama
   Mountain

ii. 山々 ( やまやま )
　Yamayama
　Many mountains

As simple as this may seem, it is important to note that only a handful of these phrases are frequently used, and it isn’t even the case that all related words of a particular variety can be pluralized in this way. For instance, although yamayama 山々 is used, kawagawa 川々 (rivers) hardly ever used, and okaoka 岡々 (hills) is basically unheard of.  

One thing to take especial note of regarding doubling nouns is that a phonological phenomenon called rendaku 連濁 affects the pronunciation of the repeated element. Rendaku 連濁 is when the second part of a compound has its initial consonant voiced if it isn’t already.

iii. 国 ( くに )
　Kuni
　Country

iv. 国々 ( くにぐに )
　Kuniguni
　Many countries

As far as spelling is concerned, rather than repeating the same character, the ditto character 々 is used instead. However, when a word of more than one character is repeated, the whole word is usually repeated instead of using the ditto mark.

v. 島々 ( しまじま )
　Shimajima
　Many islands

vi. 交代交代 ( こうたいごうたい )
　Kōtaigōtai
　Shift after shift

Unfortunately, instances of these phrases must be learned on a case by case basis, and because these phrases are so closely intertwined into the very conceptualization of core vocabulary, a good handful of the phrases that do exist have quirks that must also be addressed. For starters, we will look at the most common, straightforward instances of noun duplication.

1. 30 ( さんじゅっ ) ヶ ( か ) 国以上 ( こくいじょう ) の 人々 ( ひとびと ) に 意見 ( いけん ) を 調査 ( ちょうさ ) しました。
    Sanjukkakoku ijō no hitobito ni iken wo chōsa shimashita.
    (I/we) have investigated the opinions of (many) people from over thirty nations.

2. 日本 ( にほん ) の 山々 ( やまやま ) を 楽 ( たの ) しみましょう。
     Nihon no yamayama wo tanoshimimashō.
     Enjoy the many mountains of Japan.

3. アフリカの 国々 ( くにぐに ) までもが 中国 ( ちゅうごく ) に 依存 ( いそん ) している。
     Afurika no kuniguni made mo ga chūgoku ni ison shite iru.
     As far as the nations of Africa are dependent on China.

Reading Note: 依存 may alternatively be pronounced as izon.

4. 古代 ( こだい ) のギリシャ 人 ( じん ) は、ゼウスをはじめ、 多 ( おお ) くの 神々 ( かみがみ ) を 崇 ( あが ) めていたといわれている。
     Kodai no girishajin wa, zeusu wo hajime, ōku no kamigami wo agamete ita to iwarete iru.
     It is said that the ancient Greeks, not only worshiped Zeus, but they also worshiped many other gods.

5. 広大 ( こうだい ) な 宇宙 ( うちゅう ) に 散 ( ち ) らばる、 数 ( かぞ ) え 切 ( き ) れないほどの 星々 ( ほしぼし ) へ 旅立 ( たびだ ) ちましょう。
     Kōdai na uchū ni chirabaru, kazoekirenai hodo no hoshiboshi e tabidachimashō.
     Let’s embark on exploring the countless stars scattered in our grand universe.

6. ここ 数日 ( すうじつ ) 、 交代交代 ( こうたいごうたい ) で 休 ( やす ) みなく 作業 ( さぎょう ) を 続 ( つづ ) けていました。
     Koko sūjitsu, kōtaigōtai de yasumi naku sagyō wo tsuzukete imashita.
     For these past few day, I have been doing work without break shift after shift.

7. 南太平洋 ( みなみたいへいよう ) の 島々 ( しまじま ) に 旅行 ( りょこう ) してみたいと 思 ( おも ) います。
     Minami Taiheiyō no shimajima ni ryokō shite mitai to omoimasu.
　I’d like to travel the many islands of the South Pacific.

8. 我々 ( われわれ ) はどこから 来 ( き ) たのか、 我々 ( われわれ ) は 何者 ( なにもの ) か、 我々 ( われわれ ) はどこへ 行 ( い ) くのか。
    Wareware wa doko kara kita no ka, wareware wa nanimono ka, wareware wa doko e iku no ka.
    Where did we come from, what are we, and where are we going?

9. 足 ( あし ) を 運 ( はこ ) んでくださった 方々 ( かたがた ) 、 誠 ( まこと ) にありがとうございました。
     Ashi wo hakonde kudasatta katagata, makoto ni arigatō gozaimashita.
     To all those who turned out, (I/we) sincerely thank you.

11. トルコ 各地 ( かくち ) の 町々 ( まちまち ) を 訪 ( たず ) ねました。　
       Toruko kakuchi no machimachi wo tazunemashita.
       I visited the many towns across Turkey.

12. 換気口 ( かんきこう ) が 所々 ( ところどころ ) に 設置 ( せっち ) されている。
       Kankikō ga tokorodokoro ni setchi sarete iru.
　   Vents are installed here and there.

13. 街路樹 ( がいろじゅ ) の 木々 ( きぎ ) が 色 ( いろ ) づいて 綺麗 ( きれい ) ですね。
     Gairoju no kigi ga irozuite kirei desu ne.
　  The many roadside trees have turned colors and are lovely.

14. 世界 ( せかい ) の 隅々 ( すみずみ ) まで 貨物 ( かもつ ) を 運 ( はこ ) ぶ。
       Sekai no sumizumi made kamotsu wo hakobu.
       To transport cargo to the corners of the world.

15. 一年 ( いちねん ) を 通 ( とお ) して 季節 ( きせつ ) の 花々 ( はなばな ) を 栽培 ( さいばい ) しています。
       Ichinen wo tōshite kisetsu no hanabana wo saibai shite imasu.
       (I/we) cultivate the various flowers of the seasons throughout the year.

16. 彼 ( かれ ) らは 皆 ( みな ) それぞれの 意見 ( いけん ) を 持 ( も ) っています。
      Karera wa mina sorezore no iken wo motte imasu.
      They all each have their own opinions.

17. 学生各々 ( がくせいおのおの ) が 楽 ( たの ) しみながら 日本語 ( にほんご ) の 会話力 ( かいわりょく ) を 高 ( たか ) めている。
      Gakusei ono’ono ga tanoshiminagara Nihongo no kaiwaryoku wo takamete iru.
     Each and every student is increasing their conversation skills in Japanese while having fun.

Word Note: Ono actually comes from an old word meaning “oneself” which is still seen in the word onore 己, which is either used to mean “oneself/itself” or as a derogatory “you,” of all things.

18. 銘々 ( めいめい ) が 弁当 ( べんとう ) を 持参 ( じさん ) してください。
      Meimei ga bento wo jisan shite kudasai.
      May each please bring his own bento.

Word Note: Ono’ono 各々 and meimei 銘々 are both very similar to sorezore それぞれ. Neither, unlike sorezore それぞれ, are particularly used in the spoken language anymore, but they both only refer to people.

19. アイドルグループの○○の 面々 ( めんめん ) 重傷 ( じゅうしょう ) ！
　  Aidoru gurūpu no marumaru no memmen jūshō!
　  Each Member of Pop Group ## Severely Injured!

Word Note: Memmen 面々 is yet another word meaning “each one.” It is occasionally used in the written language; however, it is not suited for polite/honorific speech as the tone it gives is rather indifferent at a respectful level. It also literally means "every direction," but this meaning is obsolete and would be replaced with phrases like kaku hōmen 各方面.

20. 手作 ( てづく ) りの 品々 ( しなじな ) が 揃 ( そろ ) っている。
      Tezukuri no shinajina ga sorotte iru.
      Various handmade goods are lined up.

21. 風邪 ( かぜ ) で 節々 ( ふしぶし ) が 痛 ( いた ) むのはなぜでしょうか。
       Kaze de fushibushi ga itamu no wa naze deshō ka?
       Why do all one’s joints ache with a cold?

22. 蓼 ( たで ) 食 ( く ) う 虫 ( むし ) も 好 ( す ) き 好 ( ず ) き。
      Tade kū mushi mo sukizuki.
      Some prefer nettles/every man has his taste.

Phrase Note: This is a set expression which literally means, “There is also a matter of taste even for bugs that eat knotweed.” 

23. 次 ( つぎ ) は 誰々 ( だれだれ ) です。
　  Tsugi wa daredare desu.
      Next is so-and-so.

Word Note: In addition to meaning "so-and-so," this word traditionally has also been used to mean “who” but in the sense of two or more people. This usage, however, has waned and hardly anyone uses it this way anymore.

 Peculiar Examples

As you can see, all the examples thus far utilize simple yet fundamental nouns in the language. The examples to follow are also very simple and important nouns, but their duplicated forms are either not as common or have something odd about them.

24. 皮肉 ( ひにく ) なことに、 群馬県 ( ぐんまけん ) の 村々 ( むらむら ) には、 四六時中 ( しろくじじゅう ) ムラムラしている 村民 ( そんみん ) が 多 ( おお ) いらしい。
Hiniku na koto ni, Gumma-ken no muramura ni wa, shirokujichū muramura shite iru sommin ga ōi rashii.
Ironically, it seems that there are many villagers that are horny around the clock in the villages of Gunma Prefecture.

Word Note: Muramura 村々 would only be used in the written language because it is homophonous with the very common onomatopoeic expression muramura suru ムラムラする, which means “to be horny.” Onomatopoeic expressions, as demonstrated with this mere example, also frequently exhibit duplication.

25. 蝶々 ( ちょうちょう ) が 虫 ( むし ) なのに 嫌 ( きら ) われないのはなぜでしょうか。
      Chōchō ga mushi na noni kirawarenai no wa naze deshō ka?
      Why is it that butterflies aren’t hated although they’re bugs?

Word Note: Chōchō 蝶々 should just mean “(many) butterflies,” but it has ironically become detached from its literal meanings and can also just mean “butterfly.”

26. 行 ( い ) ったことのない 寺々 ( てらでら ) に 参拝 ( さんぱい ) に 出 ( で ) かける。
       Itta koto no nai teradera ni sampai ni dekakeru.
       To go out to pay homage to the many temples one has never gone to.

27. お 手手 ( てて ) 、 頂戴 ( ちょうだい ) 。
       Otete, chōdai.
       Give me your hand(s)/paw(s).

Word Note: Otete お手手 is a euphemism for “hand(s)/paw(s)” that is used towards children and pets.

The following examples are indicative of when noun duplication would normally not be permissible; however, it is noteworthy that a far larger diversity of nouns can be duplicated in specialized contexts like those seen below.

28. 雪 ( ゆき ) が 来 ( き ) た。 谷々 ( たにだに ) は 三月 ( さんがつ ) の 余 ( よ ) も 深 ( ふか ) く 埋 ( う ) もれた。
       Yuki ga kita. Tanitani wa sangatsu no yo mo fukaku umoreta.
      The snow came. The valleys were deeply buried in it past March.
From 岩石の間 by 島崎藤村.

29. 私 ( わたくし ) はほかの 穴 ( あな ) を 注意 ( ちゅうい ) して 見 ( み ) た。そしてそれらの 穴々 ( あなあな ) が、いつの 間 ( ま ) にか 次々 ( つぎつぎ ) に 塗 ( ぬ ) り 固 ( かた ) められて 行 ( い ) っているのを 見 ( み ) た。
Watakushi wa hoka no ana wo chūi shite mita. Soshite sorera no ana’ana ga, itsu no ma ni ka tsugitsugi ni nurikatamerarete itte iru no wo mita.
I looked cautiously at the other holes, and then I watched as one after another of those holes coated over before I knew it.
From ジガ蜂 by 島木健作.

Word Note: Tsugitsugi 次々 is an adverbial phrase meaning “one by one/one after another” by duplicating the noun tsugi 次 meaning “next.”

30. 私 ( わたし ) を 信 ( しん ) じる 者 ( もの ) は、 聖書 ( せいしょ ) が 言 ( い ) っているように、その 人 ( ひと ) から 生 ( い ) ける 水 ( みず ) の 川々 ( かわがわ ) が 流 ( なが ) れ 出 ( で ) るであろう。
Watashi wo shinjiru mono wa, seisho ga itte iru yō ni, sono hito kara ikeru mizu no kawagawa ga deru de arō.
Whoever believes in me, as Scripture has said, rivers of living water will flow from him.
From John 7:38

Temporal Nouns: Nominal & Adverbial

Although we are focusing on instances of noun duplication, it is important to note that the majority of nouns that are temporal are often used as both nouns and adverbs, and this is no different when they’re duplicated.

31. 幸 ( しあわ ) せな 日々 ( ひび ) を 過 ( す ) ごす。
      Shiawase na hibi wo sugosu.
     To live out happy days.

32. 展望台 ( てんぼうだい ) から 四季折々 ( しきおりおり ) の 美 ( うつく ) しさを 堪能 ( たんのう ) できます。
      Tembōdai kara shiki oriori no utsukishisa wo tan’nō dekimasu.
      You can enjoy the beauty of the seasons from season to season from the observation deck.

33. 鹿 ( しか ) も 折々 ( おりおり ) 見 ( み ) かけるが、カモシカは 珍 ( めずら ) しい。
      Shika mo oriori mikakeru ga, kamoshika wa mezurashii.
     Although I occasionally spot deer as well, wild goats are rare.

34. 時々 ( ときどき ) 、コンロの 火 ( ひ ) がつかない。
      Tokidoki, konro no hi ga tsukanai.
     Sometimes, the gas burner doesn’t light.

35. 頭金 ( あたまきん ) ゼロで 月々 ( つきづき ) 3 ( さん ) 万円台 ( まんえんだい ) の 支払 ( しはら ) いで 購入 ( こうにゅう ) できます。
      Atamakin zero de tsukizuki samman’en-dai no shiharai de kōnyū dekimasu.
     You can purchase with monthly payments in the 30,000 yen range with zero down payment.

36. 年々 ( ねんねん ) 、 需要 ( じゅよう ) が 増加 ( ぞうか ) している。
      Nen’nen, juyō ga zōka shite iru.
      Demand is increasing yearly.

37. 共同 ( きょうどう ) で 買 ( か ) った 土地 ( とち ) を 売 ( う ) ったお 金 ( かね ) を 半々 ( はんはん ) に 分 ( わ ) けたことを 後々 ( のちのち ) 揉 ( も ) めないように 書面 ( しょめん ) に 残 ( のこ ) したいと 思 ( おも ) っています。
Kyōdō de katta tochi wo utta okane wo hanhan ni waketa koto wo nochinochi momenai yō ni shomen ni nokoshitai to omotte imasu.
I would like to leave in writing that the money from selling land I hand jointly bought (with someone) was split in half so that we don’t have a dispute in the distant future.

38. その 町 ( まち ) の 人達 ( ひとたち ) は 先祖 ( せんぞ ) 代々 ( だいだい ) 受 ( う ) け 継 ( つ ) がれてきた 方言 ( ほうげん ) を 自 ( みずか ) ら 葬 ( ほうむ ) り 去 ( さ ) ったのだ。
Sono machi no hitotachi wa senzo daidai uketsugarete kita hōgen wo mizukara hōmurisatta no da.
The people of that town had buried their dialect, which had been passed down from the ancestors generation to generation, on their own.

Word Note: 代々 may also be read as “yoyo” in far more literary fashion, utilizing the native word for “generation.”

39. 前々 ( まえまえ ) から 主張 ( しゅちょう ) しているように 明 ( あき ) らかに 間違 ( まちが ) っているんです。
      Maemae kara shuchō  shite iru yō ni akiraka ni machigatte iru n desu.
      Just as I have asserted from way before, it’s clearly mistaken/wrong.

40. 先々 ( さきざき ) のことを考えると 不安 ( ふあん ) になります。
      Sakizaki no koto wo kangaeru to fuan ni narimasu.
      Whenever I think about what will be way down the line, I get anxious.

As we have learned, reduplication is an important means of creating new words in Japanese. In this lesson, we will focus on how this affects the construction of adjectival phrases.

Many new adjectives are created by doubling a word and following it with –shii しい. All sorts of things can be morphed into new adjectives in this way. Everything from nouns to adjectives, adjectival nouns, verbs, prefixes, and things that would otherwise not be used as words in isolation may be doubled and followed by –shii しい to make new adjectives.

The words that are created in this manner are all adjectives with heightened descriptive power capable of capturing the speaker’s feelings and the meaning itself will always be specialized.

Spelling Note: As we learned when studying repetition in nouns, the second element of a reduplicated phrase is usually written as 々 when it is only one character long and written out fully if longer than one character.

i. 刺々 ( とげとげ ) しい
   Togetogeshii
   To be thorny/snappy
 
ii. 冴 ( さ ) え 冴 ( ざ ) えしい
   Saezaeshii
   To be beyond vivid and refreshing

Pronunciation Note: The phonological phenomenon rendaku 連濁 still applies for reduplication in adjectives. As i. demonstrates, however, if the second syllable of the second element is voiced, even if the initial consonant of said second element is devoiced, it will not become voiced.

iii. 白々 ( しらじら ) しい
     Shirajirashii
     Barefaced/pure white

iv. くどくどしい
      Kudokudoshii
      Verbose

From Nouns

1. 会場 ( かいじょう ) に 物々 ( ものもの ) しい 雰囲気 ( ふんいき ) が 漂 ( ただよ ) った。
    Kaijō ni monomonoshii fun’iki ga tadayotta.
    An imposing atmosphere floated in the grounds.

2. お 嬢 ( じょう ) さんは 以前 ( いぜん ) にも 増 ( ま ) して 顔立 ( かおだ ) ちが 福々 ( ふくぶく ) しくなっていました。
     Ojō-san wa izen ni mo mashite kaodachi ga fukubukushiku natte imashita.
     Her looks were more plump and happy-looking than ever before.

3. よく、 図々 ( ずうずう ) しい 人 ( ひと ) のことを「 面 ( つら ) の 皮 ( かわ ) が 厚 ( あつ ) い」と 言 ( い ) います。
     Yoku, zūzūshii hito no koto wo “tsura no kawa ga atsui” to iimasu.
     We often call shameless people “brazen-faced.”

4. 甲斐甲斐 ( かいがい ) しく 立 ( た ) ち 働 ( はたら ) いている 外国人 ( がいこくじん ) が 大勢 ( おおぜい ) いました。
    Kaigaishiku tachihataraite iru gaikokujin ga ōzei imashita.
    There were many foreigners diligently at work.

5. 幼虫 ( ようちゅう ) は毒々しい 色彩 ( しきさい ) を 持 ( も ) つ。
    Yōchū wa dokudokushii shikisai wo motsu.
    The larvae have a poisonous-looking color scheme.

6. 店員 ( てんいん ) さんの 応対 ( おうたい ) も 角々 ( かどかど ) しいところはない。
    Ten’in-san no ōtai mo kadokadoshii tokoro wa nai.
    There isn’t anything angular about the clerk’s reception either.

7. そんな 空々 ( そらぞら ) しい 嘘 ( うそ ) をつかなくてもいいんだよ。
    Son’na sorazorashii uso wo tsukanakute mo ii n da yo.
    There's no need for you to make such a false lie.

8. 女々 ( めめ ) しい 男 ( おとこ ) ってどんな 人 ( ひと ) でしょうか。
    Memeshii otoko tte don’na hito deshō ka?
    What kind of person is a feminine man?

9. 離婚 ( りこん ) したくないなら、あなた 自身 ( じしん ) が 雄々 ( おお ) しい 男 ( おとこ ) になる 必要 ( ひつよう ) があります。
    Rikon shitakunai nara, anata jishin ga ōshii otoko ni naru hitsuyō ga arimasu.
    If you don’t wish to divorce, you yourself must become manly.

10. この 世 ( よ ) には、 禍々 ( まがまが ) しいオーラを 纏 ( まと ) った 人 ( ひと ) が 多 ( おお ) くいます。
       Kono yo ni wa, magamagashii ōra wo matotta hito ga ōku imasu.
      There are many people in this world that put on an ominous aura.

Word Note: Maga is an ancient word meaning “disaster.”

11. 本当 ( ほんとう ) に 神々 ( こうごう ) しい 神社 ( じんじゃ ) です。
　 Hontō ni kōgōshii jinja desu.
　 It is a very sublime temple.

Word Note: Kōgōshii 神々しい derives from a sound change of kamigami. This then became kamugamu which became kaugau, which finally resulted in kōgō.

12. 事々 ( ことごと ) しく 言 ( い ) い 訳 ( わけ ) をする。
　  Kotogoshiku iiwake wo suru.
　 To pretentiously make an excuse.

Usage Note: Kotogotoshii 事々しいis particularly rare and is usually rephrased with something else.

13. 彼 ( かれ ) はいつも 白々 ( しらじら ) しい 嘘 ( うそ ) ばかりで 腹 ( はら ) が 立 ( た ) ちます。
　 Kare wa itsu mo shirajirashii uso bakari de hara ga tachimasu.
 　I'm mad at how he always makes just the most glaring lies.

Word Note: Shira is a form of the noun shiro 白 (white) used specifically in compounds.

14. 彼女 ( かのじょ ) はけばけばしく 化粧 ( けしょう ) をしていた。
　 Kanojo wa kebakebashiku keshō wo shite ita.
　 She gaudily wore her makeup.

Spelling Note: Kebakebashii may also be spelled as 毳々しい.

Word Note: The word keba is actually a noun meaning fuzz, which can be spelled as 毛羽 or 毳.

15. 艶々 ( つやつや ) しい 髪 ( かみ ) をまっすぐに 垂 ( た ) らす。
　  Tsuyatsuyashii kami wo massugu ni tarasu.
　  To hang down one’s glossy hair straight.

Word Note: Tsuya 艶 is a noun meaning “gloss/charm.”

16. 賑々 ( にぎにぎ ) しい 繁華街 ( はんかがい ) で 夕食 ( ゆうしょく ) する。
　  Niginigishii hankagai de yūshoku suru.
　  To have dinner in a lively shopping district.

Word Note: The word nigi is an ancient noun for “bustle” which has not been used in isolation in a very long time. 

17. 成果 ( せいか ) は 捗々 ( はかばか ) しくなかった。
　 Seika wa hakabakashikunakatta.
　 The results were not satisfactory.

Word Note: The haka comes from an old noun referring to work load/progress found in other words like hakaru 計る・測る・図る・量る・諮る・謀る (the nuances and spellings revolve around different senses of devising/measuring/deliberating something) and hakadoru  捗る (to make progress).

18. ドバイの 2017 ( にせんじゅうなな ) 年 ( ねん ) は 街全体 ( まちぜんたい ) を 照 ( て ) らす 花火 ( はなび ) とともに 華々 ( はなばな ) しく 幕 ( まく ) を 開 ( あ ) けた。
Dobai no nisenjūnananen wa machi zentai wo terasu hanabi to tomo ni hanabanashiku maku wo aketa.
2017 in Dubai kicked off splendidly with fireworks which lit up the whole city.

Word Note: 華 is another form of 花 (flower).

19. ここは 採 ( と ) れたての 瑞々 ( みずみず ) しい 野菜 ( やさい ) を 毎日食 ( まいにちた ) べるという 気楽 ( きらく ) さを 楽 ( たの ) しめる 町 ( まち ) です。
Koko wa toretate no mizumizushii yasai wo mainichi taberu to iu kirakusa wo tanoshimeru machi desu.
This town here is a place where you can enjoy the ease of eating fresh, picked vegetables every day.

Word Note: Mizu 瑞 is an ancient noun meaning “purity/luster.”

From Adjectives/Adjectival Nouns

20. 痛々 ( いたいた ) しいニュースが 相次 ( あいつ ) いでいる。
　  Itaitashii nyūsu ga aitsuide iru.
　  Painful news keeps coming in one after another.

21. 最近 ( さいきん ) は、 見 ( み ) た 目年齢 ( めねんれい ) が 若々 ( わかわか ) しい 女性 ( じょせい ) が 増 ( ふ ) えている。
　  Saikin wa, mita me nenrei ga wakawakashii josei ga fuete iru.
　  Recently, the amount of women whose apparent age is youthful is increasing.

22. 馬鹿馬鹿 ( ばかばか ) しい 話 ( はなし ) はよしましょう。
　  Bakabakashii hanashi wa yoshimashō.
　  Let’s stop it with the ludicrous talks.

23. 啓祐 ( けいすけ ) は 数秒 ( すうびょう ) の 沈黙 ( ちんもく ) を 破 ( やぶ ) って 弱々 ( よわよわ ) しい 声 ( こえ ) を 出 ( だ ) した。
　  Keisuke wa sūbyō no chimmoku wo yabutte yowayowashii koe wo dashita.
　  Keisuke broke the several seconds of silence, speaking frailly.

24. とある 細々 ( こまごま ) しい 物 ( もの ) が 纏 ( まと ) まっている 商品 ( しょうひん ) を 購入 ( こうにゅう ) しました。
　  To aru komagomashii mono ga matomatte iru shōhin wo kōnyū shimashita.
　   I purchased merchandise with certain very fine parts bunched up.

25. 母 ( はは ) はいつも 苦々 ( にがにが ) しい 顔 ( かお ) をしていた。
　  Haha wa itsu mo niganigashii kao wo shite ita.
　  My mother always had an unpleasant look on her face.

26. スタジアムは 重々 ( おもおも ) しい 雰囲気 ( ふんいき ) に 包 ( つつ ) まれていた。
　   Sutajiamu wa omo’omoshii fun’iki ni tsutsumarete ita.
　   A serious atmosphere enveloped the stadium.

27. 織田信長 ( おだのぶなが ) は 短気 ( たんき ) で 荒々 ( あらあら ) しい 性格 ( せいかく ) を 持 ( も ) っていたといわれる。
　  Oda Nobunaga wa tanki de ara’arashii seikaku wo motte ita to iwareru.
　  It is said that Oda Nobunaga had a quick temper and rough personality.

28. 軽々 ( かるがる ) しい 行動 ( こうどう ) を 取 ( と ) っていると、 監視対象 ( かんしたいしょう ) になり、アカウントの 凍結 ( とうけつ ) などの 厳 ( きび ) しい 処置 ( しょち ) になる 可能性 ( かのうせい ) があります。
Karugarushii kōdō wo totte iru to, kanshi taishō ni nari, akaunto no tōketsu nado no kibishii shochi ni naru kanōsei ga arimasu.
If you are making careless actions, you may become the target of surveillance, and there is the possibility of harsh measures such as the freezing of one’s account.

29. まめまめしく 働 ( はたら ) いているのは 彼 ( かれ ) だけだ。
　   Mamemameshiku hataraite iru no wa kare dake da.
　   The only one who is painstakingly working is him.

Spelling Note: Mamemameshii may also be written as 忠実忠実しい.

30. ○○ 政権 ( せいけん ) は、 自 ( みずか ) らの 政策 ( せいさく ) を「○○ノミクス」だとかいって 仰々 ( ぎょうぎょう ) しく 宣伝 ( せんでん ) していますが、 新 ( あたら ) しい 中身 ( なかみ ) はあるんでしょうか。
Marumaru Seiken wa, mizukara no seisaku wo “marumaru-nomikusu” da toka itte gyōgyōshiku senden shite imasu ga, atarashii nakami wa aru n deshō ka?
The ## Administration bombastically propagandizes its own policies as “##nomics,” but is there new substance to be had?

Word Note: Gyōgyōshii 仰々しい actually derives from the adjectival noun keu 希有 (rare/uncommon) being reduplicated and having its pronunciation and spelling altered.

31. 星 ( ほし ) が 淡々 ( あわあわ ) しかった。
　  Hoshi ga awa’awashikatta.
　  The stars were faint.

Usage Note: Awa’awashii 淡々しい is particularly rare and is usually rephrased with something else.

32. 騒々 ( そうぞう ) しい 場所 ( ばしょ ) ではなかなか 会話 ( かいわ ) が 聞 ( き ) き 取 ( と ) れない。
　  Sōzōshii basho de wa nakanaka kaiwa ga kikitorenai.
　  I can't really make out conversations in noisy places.

Word Note: Although not used in isolation in Japanese, 騒 is being used here as an adjective for being “noisy.”

33. 凛々 ( りり ) しい 人 ( ひと ) に 憧 ( あこが ) れていました。
　  Ririshii hito ni akogarete imashita.
　  I was attracted by gallant people.

Word Note: Ririshii 凛々しい derives from rinrin 凛々 (awe-inspiring/bitter cold).

From Verbs

34. 賑 ( にぎ ) やかで 晴 ( は ) れ 晴 ( ば ) れしい 空気 ( くうき ) が 溢 ( あふ ) れている。
　  Nigiyaka de harebareshii kūki ga afurete iru.
　  A lively and splendid atmosphere is abounding.

35. 周 ( まわ ) りに 馴 ( な ) れ 馴 ( な ) れしい 人 ( ひと ) はいますか。
　  Mawari ni narenareshii hito wa imasu ka?
　  Is there anyone around who is being over-familiar?

36. ふてぶてしい 態度 ( たいど ) を 取 ( と ) る 人 ( ひと ) は 悪 ( わる ) い 印象 ( いんしょう ) を 持 ( も ) たれてしまう。
　  Futebuteshii taido wo toru hito wa warui inshō wo motarete shimau.
　  People who take a brazen attitude give out bad impressions.

Word Note: Futebuteshii ふてぶてしい derives from the verb futeru ふてる, which is a dialect variation of the verb futekusareru ふて腐れる (to become sulky), which it also gave rise to. Futebuteshii may alternatively be written as 太々しい, 不貞不貞しい, or 不敵不敵しい.

37. 若 ( わか ) いころの 忌々 ( いまいま ) しい 記憶 ( きおく ) を 思 ( おも ) い 出 ( だ ) したくない。
　  Wakai koro no imaimashii kioku wo omoidashitakunai.
　  I don't want to remember the provoking memories from when I was young.

Word Note: The ima comes from the verb imu 忌む (to detest/shun).

38. 盗人猛々 ( ぬすびとたけだけ ) しい。
　  Nusubito takedakeshii.
　  The guilty are audacious.

Word Note: Takedakeshii 猛々しい derives from the verb takeru 猛る (to rage). However, this verb form is now quite rare.

39. 清々 ( すがすが ) しい 表情 ( ひょうじょう ) で 記者会見 ( きしゃかいけん ) に 臨 ( のぞ ) む。
　  Sugasugashii hyōjō de kisha kaiken ni nozomu.
　  To appear in a press conference with a brisk expression.

Word Note: The suga comes from the verb sugiru 過ぎる (to pass by).

None of the Above

40. お 二人 ( ふたり ) とも 20 ( にじゅう ) 代前半 ( だいぜんはん ) の 初々 ( ういうい ) しいカップルです。
　  Ofutari tomo nijūdai zenhan no uiuishii kappuru desu.
　  They are an unspoiled couple both in their early twenties.

Word Note: Uiuishii 初々しい derives from the prefix ui- 初, which means “first” and is seen in a handful of words such as uizan 初産 (first childbirth). 

Reduplication in adjectival nouns is somewhat more complicated than for nouns or adjectives. The reason for this is that as we’ve learned before, whether to use na な or no の is a bit all over the place, and in addition to that, many of the phrases shown here may also have alternate uses as adverbs.

Just as before, some examples of reduplication in adjectival nouns derive from nouns, adjectives, adjectival nouns, verbs, and even onomatopoeic expressions. However, you will be disappointed that the number of reduplicated adjectival nouns is dwindling in Modern Japanese.

・From Nouns: Kazukazu [no] 数々（の）－ Numerous
・From Adjectives: Atsuatsu [no] 熱々（の）　－ Piping hot
・From Adjectival Nouns: Boroboro [na/no] ぼろぼろ（な・の） － Run-down
・ From Verbs: Tobitobi [na] 飛び飛び（な） － Scattered here and there
・From Onomatopoeia: Pikapika [no/na] ぴかぴか（の・な）－ Sparkling

Grammatical restraints are just as all over the place as the etymologies of these instances of reduplication. Most instances can be used as adverbs by using ni に, which is no different than the majority of adjectival nouns. However, some may only be used to the extent of ni naru になる, and so playing with each one to see how much it can be used in is necessary. 

From Nouns 

1. 社会 ( しゃかい ) に 出 ( で ) ると 数々 ( かずかず ) の 問題 ( もんだい ) に 直面 ( ちょくめん ) する。
    Shakai ni deru to kazukazu no mondai ni chokumen suru.
    When you enter society, you encounter numerous problems.

2. 種々 ( しゅじゅ ) の 対策 ( たいさく ) を 講 ( こう ) じる。
    Shuju no taisaku wo kōjiru.
    To take all sorts of measures.  

3. 色々 ( いろいろ ) な 場所 ( ばしょ ) にポケモンが 生息 ( せいそく ) しています。
     Iroiro na basho ni pokemon ga seisoku shite imasu.
     Pokemon inhabit various places.

4. お 肉 ( にく ) は 程々 ( ほどほど ) の 味 ( あじ ) で 値段 ( ねだん ) も 割高 ( わりだか ) です。
    Oniku wa hodohodo no aji de nedam mo waridaka desu.
    As for the meat, the price is also fairly expensive with a moderate taste.

5. 彼 ( かれ ) は 元々 ( もともと ) 、 結婚願望 ( けっこんがんぼう ) がなかった。
    Kare wa motomoto, kekkon gambō ga nakatta.
    He had no desire to marry from the start.

Usage Note: Motomoto 元々 may be used as an adverb without the need of any particle.

6. 元々 ( もともと ) の 意味 ( いみ ) はご 存 ( ぞん ) じですか。
    Motomoto no imi wa gozonji desu ka?
    Do you know what the original meaning is?

7. 帰宅 ( きたく ) が 遅 ( おそ ) くなったりしますが、 営業職 ( えいぎょうしょく ) としては 並々 ( なみなみ ) の 残業 ( ざんぎょう ) かと 思 ( おも ) います。
    Kitaku ga osoku nattari shimasu ga, eigyōshoku to shite wa naminami no zangyō ka to omoimasu.
    Coming home is sometimes late or what not, but I think that’s ordinary overtime for a business job.

From Adjectives

8. ピリ 辛 ( から ) で 熱々 ( あつあつ ) のキムチをご 飯 ( はん ) と 一緒 ( いっしょ ) に 食 ( た ) べました。
    Pirikara de atsuatsu no kimuchi wo gohan to issho ni tabemashita.
    I ate my meal/cooked rice with spicy and piping hot kimchi.

9. 久々 ( ひさびさ ) にカレーを 作 ( つく ) った。
    Hisabisa ni karē wo tsukutta.
    I made curry after a long while.

From Adjectival Nouns

10. 夫 ( おっと ) は 結婚 ( けっこん ) するまでぼろぼろの 服 ( ふく ) を 着 ( き ) ていました。
      Otto wa kekkon suru made boroboro no fuku wo kite imashita.
      My husband worse ragged clothes up until we got married.

From Verbs

11. 亮太君 ( りょうたくん ) は 彼女 ( かのじょ ) に 息 ( いき ) が 絶 ( た ) え 絶 ( だ ) えになるほど 熱 ( あつ ) いキスをした。
      Ryōta-kun wa kanojo ni iki ga taedae ni naru hodo atsui kisu wo shita.
     Ryota gave her such a warm kiss so strong it left her gasping.

12. 色 ( いろ ) とりどりに 花 ( はな ) が 咲 ( さ ) いています。
      Iro toridori ni hana ga saite imasu.
     Multi-colored flowers are blooming.

13. 空白 ( くうはく ) が 飛 ( と ) び 飛 ( と ) びになっている。
      Kūhaku ga tobitobi ni natte iru.
      Empty spaces are scattered everywhere.

From Four Character Idioms

14. 奇々怪々 ( ききかいかい ) な 事件 ( じけん ) を 鮮 ( あざ ) やかに 解 ( と ) き 明 ( あ ) かしていく。
      Kikikaikai na jiken wo azayaka ni tokiakashite iku.
      I will vividly dispel bizarre cases.

Word Note: 奇々怪々 is rare and would usually be replaced with the simpler kikai 奇怪 from which it derives.

From Onomatopoeia

15. ぴかぴかの 歯 ( は ) を 取 ( と ) り 戻 ( もど ) しましょう。
      Pikapika no ha wo torimodoshimashō.
      Restore one’s sparkling teeth!

From Prefixes

16. 周辺諸国 ( しゅうへんしょこく ) にもその 影響 ( えいきょう ) が 伝播 ( でんぱ ) し、 諸々 ( もろもろ ) の 事情 ( じじょう ) によって 崩壊 ( ほうかい ) していったとのことでした。
Shūhen shokoku ni mo sono eikyō ga dempa shi, moromoro no jijō ni yotte hōkai shite itta to no koto deshita.
That effect propagated to all the neighboring countries as well, which led to them collapsing under all kinds of circumstances.

17. 諸々 ( もろもろ ) 、 了解 ( りょうかい ) しました。
     Moromoro, ryōkai shimashita.
     Rodger that to everything.

Usage Note: Moromoro 諸々 may be used as an adverb without the need of any particle. 

As has been the case for reduplication thus far, reduplication in adverbs is reliant upon diverse means of construction spanning several parts of speech. Some commonalities do exist, and it is these commonalities that will also emphasize the need to truly take each phrase for what it is worth on an individual basis. You will find that your control of vocabulary will be much more solid and intricate. 

From Nouns

Some reduplication in adverbs results from the doubling of particular nouns. The grammatical ramifications tend to be quite unique. Some may have the particle to と follow them, but this is never obligatory. Others need no particle at all and aid in the creation of more complex adverbial phrases.

1. それは、色々（と）事情があったんでしょう。
     Sore wa, iroiro (to) jijō ga atta n deshō.
     As far as that (is concerned), surely there were all sorts of circumstances.  

2. 夫婦共々、より一層精進していますので、よろしくお願いします。
    Fūfu tomodomo, yori issō shōjin shite imasu node, yoroshiku onegai shimasu.
We, together as husband and wife, we will be even more diligent, and so we look forward to working with you. 

Word Note: Tomo 共 is a noun meaning “both.”

From Adverbial Nouns

A very small number of reduplication in adverbs comes from adverbial nouns. The most common example is as follows.

3. 嫌々仕事をやるのなら、やらないほうがましです。
    Iyaiya shigoto wo yaru no nara, yaranai hō ga mashi desu.
    If you’re going to grudgingly work, it’s better that you not work.

From Adverbs

A small number of reduplication in adverbs involves the doubling of adverbs. The number of such phrases in existence is quite low if one excludes those from onomatopoeia, which we’ll look at separately later in this lesson. Similarly to most examples of reduplication thus far, the nuance of the resultant phrase will always have a specialized meaning that will not be the same as its singular counterpart.

4. 一人で旅をしていると、いよいよ孤独感に落ち込んでしまう。
    Hitori de tabi wo shite iru to, iyoiyo kodokukan ni ochikonde shimau.
    As I’m traveling alone, I feel more and more down in a sense of isolation. 

Word Note: Iyoiyo いよいよ derives from the adverb iya 弥, which is known in the set phrase iya ga ue ni mo 弥が上にも (all the more).

5. ついつい言いそびれてしまいました。
    Tsuitsui iisobirete shimaimashita.
    I unintentionally forgot to speak of it.

6. わざわざ来てくれてありがとうございます。
     Wazawaza kite kurete arigatō gozaimasu.
     Thank you for taking the trouble to come.

Word Note: Wazawaza わざわざ derives from the adverb waza to わざと (intentionally). It may alternatively be spelled as 態々.

From Adjectives

Reduplicated adverbial phrases resulting from the doubling of adjectival roots are frequently accompanied with the particle to と, but whether it is obligatory or not is determined on a case-by-case basis. Sometimes, no particle intervention ever happens, while sometimes you will see the occasional ni に as if the phrase in question is being treated as an adjectival noun in the adverbial form. These particle discrepancies are clearly defined in the examples below.

7. 近々（に）車検があります。
    Chikajika (ni) shaken ga arimasu.
    I have a car inspection in the near future.

8. この先半年くらいで近々（に）閉めるのが確定している。
       Kono saki hantoshi kurai de chikajika (ni) shimeru no ga kakutei shite iru.
       It's finalized that they will close business shortly about half a year from now.

9. よくよく考えてみれば当たり前の話です。
　   Yokuyoku kangaete mireba atarimae no hanashi desu.
       If you think very carefully, it’s quite obvious.

Word Note: Yokuyoku よくよく may be used as an adverbial noun which takes either na な or no の when before nouns to mean “large extent,” but this is usually expressed with yohodo よほど, which has the same grammatical limitations minus that it never takes na な.

10. 深々と頭を下げるのは誠実さの表れ。
      Fukabuka to atama wo sageru no wa seijitsusa no araware.
      Deeply bowing one’s head is an embodiment of sincerity.

11. 私は田舎で狭い畑を耕しながら細々と暮らしています。
　  Watashi wa inaka de semai hatake wo tagayashinagara hosoboso to kurashite imasu.
       I’m scraping by while cultivating a narrow field in the country.

12. 道端の土手に草花が青々と茂っている。
      Michibata no dote ni kusabana ga aoao to shigette iru.
      Flowers are lushly growing thick in the embankments on the side of the road.

13. 暖炉の火が赤々と燃えている。
      Danro no hi ga aka’aka to moete iru.
      The hearth fire is burning bright red.

14. 黒々と墨で書かれている。
       Kuroguro to sumi de kakarete iru.
       It’s written deep black in India ink.

15. 間もなく夜が白々と明けてきた。
      Ma mo naku yoru ga shirojiro to akete kita.
      The dawn grew bright in a short time.

16. 彼は自分の気持ちに薄々（と）気がついているようだ。
      Kare wa jibun no kimochi ni ususu (to) ki ga tsuite iru yō da.
      He seems vaguely aware of his own emotions.

From Onomatopoeia

A lot of onomatopoeic expressions are made via reduplication. In fact, an entire dictionary could be made with all the examples that could be found used in every day speech. These phrases give depth in nuance which will allow your speech to become ever more native like if used correctly. If there were ever a reason to study reduplication in detail for purposes of bettering your Japanese, placing heavy emphasis on learning and using as many of these phrases as possible will take you a long way.

Grammatically speaking, they all have one thing in common: they may optionally take the particle to と. The deciding factor as to when to use it or not is usually based on the cadence of the entire utterance. Essentially, whatever flows out of the mouth is right.

17. 雷がゴロゴロと鳴いている。
      Kaminari ga gorogoro to naite iru.
      The thunder is roaring.

18. 田んぼに水が入ってカエルはゲロゲロと鳴いていました。
　  Tambo ni mizu ga haitte kaeru wa gerogero to naite imashita.
      Water got in the fields and then frogs ribbited.

Spelling Note: Tambo may alternatively be spelled as 田圃. Kaeru may alternatively be spelled as 蛙.

19. 僕はその破片をまじまじと見つめた。
　  Boku wa sono hahen wo majimaji to mitsumeta.
      I took a long hard look at the fragments.

20. 表面が少しぶつぶつ（と）泡だってきたら醤油と味醂を加えてください。
Hyōmen ga sukoshi butsubutsu (to) awadatte kitara shōyu to mirin wo kuwaete kudasai.
Once the surface starts to bubble and summer a little, add soy sauce and mirin. 7. 鶏肉500gを、適度の塩と少々のコショウを振って、こんがりとした焼き色が付くまで強火で焼いてください。
Toriniku gohyaku-guramu wo tekido no shio to shōshō no koshō wo futte kongari to shita yaki’iro ga tsuku made tsuyobi de yaite kudasai.
Cook 500 grams of poultry by sprinkling a moderate amount of salt and a small amount of pepper and then cooking on high heat until it is beautifully browned.

From Chinese Loans

Those from Chinese loans may or may not always be stand-alone words, but what is reduplicated could be from nominal, adjectival, or adverbial phrases. For some, the addition of to と may be optional or obligatory. This will be made visibly obvious in the examples below.

21. 少々お待ちください。
      Shōshō omachi kudasai.
      Please wait a short while.

22. その状況については重々承知しております。
　  Sono jōkyō ni tsuite wa jūjū shōchi shite orimasu.
       We are fully aware of the situation.

23.  段々（と）成長していく姿を見られて幸せです。
 　  Dandan (to) seichō shite iku sugata wo mirarete shiawase desu.
　   I'm so happy to be able to see (x) gradually grow.

24. せいぜいがんばるさ。
　  Seizei gambaru sa.
　  I’ll keep at it as much as I can.

Word Note: Seizei せいぜい is the reduplication of the noun sei 精 (energy/vigor). It originally has always held a positive meaning, but it now sometimes has an ironic/cynical nuance to it. This word may alternatively be spelled as 精々.

26. 清水さんは、ここで悠々と暮らしていたらしかった。
　  Shimizu-san wa, koko de yūyū to kurashite ita rashikatta.
　  It appears that Mr. Shimizu lived here leisurely.

From Number Phrases

A small number of reduplicated phrases can be seen in number expressions such as those seen below.

27. 今のところ、五分五分かもしれません。
　  Ima no tokoro, gobu gobu kamoshiremasen.
　 At present, it may be fifty-fifty.

28. 駅で降りた観光客は三々五々に散っていきました。
      Eki de orita kankōkyaku wa sansangogo ni chitte ikimashita.
      The tourists that got off at the station scattered away in small groups.

29. いちいち指摘しなくてもいいでしょう。
       Ichi’ichi shiteki shinakute mo ii deshō.
       Surely you don’t need to critique every single thing.

Word Note: If not already visually obvious, ichi’ichi is reduplication of the number one, and thus, it may be alternatively written as 一々.

Miscellaneous 

If all this diversity weren't enough, there are also some examples that are truly unique. Take for example the word somosomo そもそも below. It is the duplication of an ancient variant of sore mo それも (that also). 

30. この発想がそもそも間違っているのです。
       Kono hassō ga somosomo machigatte iru no desu.
       This conception is what’s wrong in the first place.

In this lesson we'll learn all about 込む. It's interesting to know that the character 込 is a Japanese-made 漢字. This verb and how it's used often throws people off, especially when trying to translate stuff. 

1. To load bullets.

8. 実弾を込める。
    To hold live fire.

2. To pour emotion into. This is where を込めて mostly applies.

9. 彼は満身の力を込めて大石を投げた。
    He threw a great stone with all his strength.

10. 心をこめて持て成す。
     To make welcome with (all) one's heart.

3. To include another item. Using 含める is more common. 

11. 消費税を込めた料金
      Fee with sales tax included. 

4. As an intransitive verb, it means "enshroud (clouds, mist, etc.)". 

12a. 霧が町に込めた。（Old-fashioned)
12b. 霧が町に立ち込めた。（Natural)
       Mist enshrouded the village.

～込める

     ～込める may mean to "put into" or "to do away with". Examples include the following.

13. 雲の立ち込めた山を見よ。
     Look at the cloud enveloped mountains!

14. 相手を言いこめた。
      I argued down my opponent.  

15. 強盗は人質を物置に押し込めた。
     The burglar pushed the hostages down into a closet.

16. 強盗は人質を物置きに押し込んだ。
     The burglar pushed the hostages into the closet. 

17. 神社には、壁に塗り込められた経文がある。
      There are sutras painted over in walls at shrines. 

Honorifics is a very intricate and complicated system. Although it is without a doubt that a native Japanese speaker naturally has a decent control of honorifics, nearly half of all speakers complain of lacking confidence in using honorifics. The other half complains about how others ‘incorrectly’ use honorifics. Several patterns warrant special attention because they are new and or questionable. It is important to be things that are frequently used, even if those things are unorthodox in anyway.

Having said this, in this lesson we will study the intriguing phrase ni narimasu になります・[ni/to] natte orimasu に・となっております．

We should know by now that the verb naru 成る is used in a wide variety of situations.

1. 氷 ( こおり ) が 水 ( みず ) になります。
     Kōri ga mizu ni narimasu.
     Ice turns into water.

2. 漢方薬 ( かんぽうやく ) は 体 ( からだ ) のためになります。
     Kampōyaku wa karada no tame ni narimasu.
     Chinese herbal medicine benefits the body.

3. 結婚 ( けっこん ) して １０ ( じゅう ) 年 ( ねん ) になります。
     Kekkon shite jūnen ni narimasu.
     It will be ten years since I got married.

4. お 世話 ( せわ ) になります。
     Osewa ni narimasu.
     I will be in your aid.

Phrase Note: This is a set phrase used in formal situations when one is corresponding and or addressing someone to whom will be in your aid in some endeavor. 

5. エオリア 諸島 ( しょとう ) は 7 ( なな ) つの 火山島 ( かざんとう ) からなります。
     Eoria shotō wa nanatsu no kazantō kara narimasu.
     The Aeolian Islands are made up of seven volcanic islands.

6. お 客様 ( きゃくさま ) がお 着 ( つ ) きになりました。
　Okyaku-sama ga otsuki ni narimashita.
　 The customer has arrived.

Grammar Note: O- お＋Verb Stem + ni naru になる, as we have learned, is one of the fundamental means of making most verbs honorific.

7. 全部 ( ぜんぶ ) で １０ ( じゅう ) 万円 ( まんえん ) になります。
    Zembu de jūman’en ni narimasu.
    It will reach 100,000 yen in total.

The usages thus far are well-established in Japanese, but we have yet to explore its unorthodox usage that is now used extensively in customer service honorific speech.

 'Convenience Store' Honorifics: ni narimasu になります

So what is it about ni narimasu になります that is problematic? The issue at hand is that ni narimasu になります is a hallmark phrase of what is called baito keigo バイト敬語. Although the name suggests that it is only used at part time jobs, baito keigo is actually used by people in all walks of professions, especially if the job has anything to do with customer service.

The issue at hand here is when ni narimasu になります is used in the sense of desuです or de gozaimasu でございます.

8a. こちらが 領収書 ( りょうしゅうしょ ) になります。△
       Kochira ga ryōshūsho ni narimasu.

8b. こちらが 領収書 ( りょうしゅうしょ ) ｛です・でございます｝。○
       Kochira ga ryōshūsho [desu/de gozaimasu].

Both sentences mean, “This is the receipt.” However, because naru なる’s primary meaning expresses change of state, many speakers find it ungrammatical for means of simply avoiding a declarative statement. Nothing is becoming the receipt. The receipt is the receipt.

There are important counterarguments to consider. Pretend that you are a waiter. Your customer orders iced coffee. You go to the back and fetch what your customer ordered, and then you return to the customer’s table and present it. In a psychological sense, one could say that the cup of iced coffee you have in your hand is simply a cup with a cold, dark liquid in it from the customer’s viewpoint.

9. こちら、ご 注文 ( ちゅうもん ) のアイスコーヒーになります。
     Kochira, gochūmon no aisukōhii ni narimasu.
     This is the iced coffee you ordered.

Instead of outright stating that it IS iced coffee, you present the iced coffee as something that has potentially gone from being an unknown entity to being the iced coffee the customer had asked for. In this sense, ni narimasu になります becomes a conduit for presenting things without it sounding like you’re stating the obvious. Additionally, this serves as a means of avoiding responsibility if you messed up somehow.

10. お 会計 ( かいけい ) 、 ６０００ ( ろくせん ) 円 ( えん ) ｛になります △・です ○・でございます ○｝。
      Okaikei, rokusen’en [ni narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
      Your total is 6000 yen.

Example Note: The total of the bill is not inherently the worker’s fault. If the consumer is spending that much at said establishment, then it is the consumer’s responsibility to pay for the goods and or services the stated value. Therefore, it is strange at best why an employee would wish to shift blame away from himself for the cost of the consumer’s bill. However, there is a principle in customer service that the customer is always right.

The pursuit of addressing all customers with the utmost respect and care also places pressure on the worker to also cover for his and the establishment’s own misgivings if any exist. For all one knows, the 6000-yen purchase may actually only be 5600 because a discount wasn’t properly taken into account. Since the possibilities of what could go wrong at the cash register are endless, one could say that the reason why ni narimasu になります is here to stay is that it is the best means of the workers to cover face and yet be polite to the consumer at the same time.

Terminology Note: Customer service honorifics may also go by the names baitogo バイト語, kombini keigo コンビニ敬語, famiresu keigo ファミレス敬語, famikon kotoba ファミコン言葉, etc. 

To narimasu となります &  [ni/to] natte orimasu｛に・と｝なっております 

In addition to ni narimasu になります, there is also to narimasu となります, and [ni/to] natte orimasu に・となっております to consider. The usage of the particle to と is meant to enhance formality. The use of に・となっております is meant to indicate that a situation is and has been so but in a manner that shifts responsibility away from the speaker. One can also say that the use of this form simply follows the general rule of thumb that the longer the phrase, the politer it is. However, with each time it’s used, the “but why?” response from the listener becomes ever more justified.

11. 本日 ( ほんじつ ) のランチは、 冷 ( ひ ) やし 中華定食 ( ちゅうかていしょく ) ｛となっております △・でございます ○｝。
      Honjitsu no ranchi wa, hiyashi chūka teishoku [to natte orimasu/de gozaimasu].
      As for today’s lunch, the special of the day is chilled Chinese days.

Example Note: When it is a waiter that is saying this, one can easily see how he or she is trying to avoid responsibility for the management’s decision for having the special of the day be as such. Yet, the worker is by default a spokesperson of the establishment when telling customers about the day’s special. The use of to natte orimasu となっております conversely emphasizes the value in what the special is to many speakers, which is unnecessary.

12. こちらが 麻婆豆腐定食 ( まーぼーどうふていしょく ) ｛となっております △・です ○・でございます ○｝。
      Kochira ga mābō-dōfu teishoku [to natte orimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
      This the mapo doufu special.

Example Note: Just as with the previous example, too much emphasis is conversely attached to the value of the special, making this statement verging on boasting, an ironic conclusion to avoiding responsibility for what it is.

13. 明日 ( あした ) が 期限 ( きげん ) ｛に/と・なっております △・です ○｝。
      Asu ga kigen [ni/to natte orimasu/desu].
      The deadline is tomorrow.

Example Note: This example sentence is indicative of a worker telling a coworker, perhaps someone of higher status at the place of employment, that the deadline is tomorrow. As such, the relationship between the speaker and listener is not as inherently distant as is the case between unacquainted customer and server. This is why the particle ni に may manifest here. However, because the phrase ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております, overall, implies shifting responsibility, that in and of itself is unpleasant in the workplace. As such, this worker will most likely be corrected to simply use desu です instead.

14. 当店 ( とうてん ) は、 女性専用 ( じょせいせんよう ) ｛となっております △・とさせて 頂 ( いただ ) いています ○・ でございます ○｝。
      Tōten wa, josei sen’yō [to natte orimasu/to sasete itadaite imasu/de gozaimasu].
      This store is exclusive to women.

Example Note: In this example, the use of to natte orimasu となっております shifts the blame away from the establishment for being women-exclusive, which at face value is ludicrous. As such, most speakers prefer that to sasete itadaite imasu とさせていただいています be used because this pattern expresses a willful decision that was taken out of discretion toward those affected.

 Listener Discomfort

Another thing to consider is to why ni/to narimasu に・となります and ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております cause the listener discomfort is because naru なる not only shows change, but the change it describes is not one caused by someone. Purposely using it in a situation where the situation (which may change) is most certainly caused by someone is yet another reason for why these phrases are interpreted as avoiding responsibility/blame. Using desu です or de gozaimasu でございます avoids this situation, and if the statement may still be perceived as being rude to the listener(s), then cushion words like kyōshuku desu ga 恐縮ですが (I’m terribly sorry to trouble you, but…), osoreimasu ga 恐れ入りますが (Pardon me for troubling you, but…), mōshiwake gozaimasen ga 申し訳ございませんが (I am terribly sorry, but…) may be used to enhance politeness, thus making the phrases in question unnecessary.

15. お 支払 ( しはら ) いは 銀行振込 ( ぎんこうふりこみ ) のみ｛となります △・です ○・ でございます ○｝。
      Oshiharai wa ginkō furikomi [to narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
      Payment is only by bank transfer.

Example Note: Consumers, hearing this with to narimasu となります, have every reason to retort, “But why? Is there not any other form of payment, and why is this the only one you offer?”

16. 駅構内 ( えきこうない ) は 禁煙 ( きんえん ) ｛となります △・です ○・でございます ○｝。
      Eki kōnai wa kin’en [to narimasu/desu/de gozaimasu].
      The inside of the train station is nonsmoking.

Example Note: Smokers, hearing this statement with to narimasu となります, may retort, “Well why can't we smoke?”

When ni/to narimasu に・となります & ni/to natte orimasu に・となっております are Correct

As was demonstrated at the beginning of this lesson, there are indeed instances when these phrases are correct, which is when the verb naru なる is used in its traditional means. In the following examples, naru なる is used in the sense of showing some natural state, perhaps a change, benefit, or reaching some status. Also, as usually, the use of te imasu/orimasu  ています・おります is determined by normal grammar. If it is a state that has been the case, you use them. If you are stating said situation with any degree of formality orimasu おります is used instead of imasu います.

17. 玉 ( たま ) ねぎを 炒 ( いた ) めて １０ ( じゅっ ) 分間火 ( ふんかんひ ) を 通 ( とお ) したものが、こちらになります。
      Tamanegi wo itamete juppunkan hi wo tōshita mono ga, kochira ni narimasu.
      This is what becomes of sautéing and cooking onions for ten minutes.

Spelling Note: Tamanegi may alternatively be spelled as 玉葱.

Reading Note: １０分間 may also be read as jippunkan.

18. ヴルカーノ 島 ( とう ) は「 火山 ( かざん ) 」を 意味 ( いみ ) する「Volcano」という 英単語 ( えいたんご ) そのものの 語源 ( ごげん ) となっています。
Burukāno-tō wa “kazan” wo imi suru “volcano” to iu eitango sono mono no gogen to natte imasu.
Vulcano Island is the very origin of the English word “volcano” meaning “kazan.”

19. この 漢和辞典 ( かんわじてん ) では、 常用漢字 ( じょうようかんじ ) の 読 ( よ ) みは 赤文字 ( あかもじ ) となっております。
      Kono kanwa jiten de wa, jōyō kanji no yomi wa akamoji to natte orimasu.
      In this Chinese-Japanese character dictionary, Joyo Kanji readings are in red.

The Validity of ni narimasu になります and Others

The use of these phrases in honorifics to replace the copula is here to stay. Language is always evolving along with culture. Because this usage is here to stay, it is important to become familiar with them and understand what people mean when they use them. It is no longer the case that a large majority even views this usage as incorrect anymore; thus, labeling it as incorrect and ignoring it is no longer an option. As a Japanese learner, you must understand that if you ever absorb Japanese media or go to Japanese establishments, this will be used and used extensively. It is also a part of the regular honorific speech of people outside of the workplace, too.

20. お 手洗 ( てあら ) いはあちらになります。
      Otearai wa achira ni narimasu.
      The bathroom is over there.

21. こちらが 会議室 ( かいぎしつ ) になります。
        Kochira ga kaigishitsu ni narimasu.
        This is the meeting room

22. ３５０ ( さんびゃくごじゅう ) 円 ( えん ) のお 釣 ( つ ) りになります。
       Sambyakugojūen no otsuri ni narimasu.
       Your change is 350 yen.

23. 毎週月曜日 ( まいしゅうげつようび ) は 定休日 ( ていきゅうび ) となっております。
       Maishū getsuyobi wa teikyūbi to natte orimasu.
       Our fixed day off is Monday of every week.