今日 IMABI - Intermediate I

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて

第130課: The Particles とか, など, & なんか

第???課: The Particle なんて

～たり is most known for being in the common pattern ～たり～たりする. The pattern usually always ends in する. Sometimes in speaking, the する may get cut off, but its existence is nevertheless implied. 

When used with verbs, the pattern shows two actions occurring back and forth. Or, with one or more verb or adjective, it shows examples of actions and or states. This pattern can also be used with the negative. 

1. 彼女は立ったり座ったりした。
    She stood up and down.

2. 「今週は何をしますか」「友達にメールをしたり、本を読んだりします」 
    "What will you do this week?" "I'll do things like mail my friends and read a book"

3. 月が雲の 合間 ( あいま ) に見えたり、 隠 ( かく ) れたりした。
    The moon came in and out of sight in the clouds.

4. 休日は 読書 ( どくしょ ) をしたり 散歩 ( さんぽ ) をしたりして 過 ( す ) ごす。
    As for holidays, I do thing such as read books or take walks to pass time.

5. 男が泣いたりして 気持 ( きも ) ちが悪いなあ。
    It's a little creepy for a man to be crying.

6. 昼食の時間は早かったり遅かったりだ。 
    Lunch times goes from being early to being late. 

7. 近所のお店のコーヒーは日によって濃かったり薄かったりします。
    The neighborhood store's coffee goes from being strong to being thin.  

8. デパートに行ったり、ゲームをしたりした。 
     I did things like go to the department store and play games.

9. 掃除 ( そうじ ) （を）したり 洗濯 ( せんたく ) （を）したりしました。 
    I was cleaning, doing laundry, etc. 

10. 本を読んだりレポートを書いたりしていた。
      I was reading books, writing reports, etc.

11. 株を買おうか迷ってるけど、日によって高かったり安かったりでいつ買うべきかよく分からないなぁ。
I'm wavering on whether to buy the stock, and because the price is expensive and cheap from day to day, I don't know when I should buy. 

Grammar Note: 買おう is the volitional form of 買う.  

12. 500円といっても、人によって高く感じたり安く感じたりする。
　　  Even though it may be 500 yen, it may feel expensive or cheap depending on the person.

13. ガソリンの値段が場所によって高かったり、安かったりするのは何故ですか? 
　　 Why is that gas prices are high and low depending on the place?

14. 映画を 観 み たり、本を読んだり、 昼寝 ひるね したりする。
      I do things like watch movies, read books, take naps, among other things.

15. 一週間雨が 降 ( ふ ) ったり 止 ( や ) んだりしていた。
      The rain was intermittent throughout the week.

16.  日によって上手だったり下手だったりするのはプロとは言えない。 
      Going from awesome to bad makes you not a pro. 

17. 日によって絵があったりなかったりします。
      There are and aren't paintings depending on the day.

Grammar Note: As you can see, the negative can be used with たり． 

漢字 Note: 絵’s reading え is actually an 音読み. 

18. 高かったり安かったりで 安定 ( あんてい ) しない 価格 ( かかく )
      An unsteady price that goes back and forth from high to low 

Grammar Note: The sentence above shows how the conjunctive particle たり can be used without ending in する. The copula is often used, and aside from this, when you use する, it can be used in other conjugations like the て形.

19. 暑かったり寒かったりしていた。
      It was going from hot to cold.  

20. マンションの部屋は広かったり狭かったり｛だ・する｝。
 　　The condo rooms were wide and narrow.

Grammar Note: The use of だ injects more emotion whereas the use of する states things in a more objective fashion.  

21. クマはおりの中で行ったり来たりしていた。
      The bear was walking back and forth in its cage.

22. 女だと思ってよく見たら、男だったりする。
　　 You think the person is a woman, but when you look, the person is a man.  

23. 新品と思って買ったら、中古品だったりすることがよくある。 
　　 It's often the case that one buys something thinking it's new and finding out it's used. 

24. どれも似たり寄ったりだな。(Idiom)
      Nothing really stands out.

25.   願 ねが ったり 叶 かな ったりの 好条件　　(Set Phrase) 　 
       Favorable conditions that work out as desired

Grammar Note: You sometimes see ～たり～たりの in set phrases like above.  

26. 飲み食い
      Eating and drinking

Phrasing Note: The above phrase is an example of nominal phrases from verbs having similar meaning to ～たり. If 飲み食いする were paraphrased, you would get either 食べたり飲んだりする or 飲んだり食べたりする. Note that "drinking and eating" is far less frequent than "eating and drinking" in English, but in Japanese no such ordering other than in 飲み食い can be attested. But, for other pairings of verbs, certain orders may be expected, and they may not all be the same as in English. So, pay attention. 

     Nominalization is making another part of speech--verbs, adjectives, phrases, abstract nouns, etc.--noun-like. Nominalization is mainly done with the help of 形式名詞 けいしきめいし (nominal/dummy nouns).

     The nominalizers の and こと are both used to nominalize phrases to make them noun-like to an extent. At the most basic understanding, the main difference between the two is that the former is more subjective and the latter is more objective. This small yet important difference places a major role in how they are chosen and how they fit with other expressions. 

An objective perspective is one that is not influenced by personal emotions whereas a subject perspective is one that does involve emotion. こと literally means "matter/circumstance," and so it is used in grammatical situations where one needs to nominalize verbal/adjectival expressions and concretely talk about them as entities. For instance, if you want to talk about "new developments" or "dancing," こと would appear.

However, a more subjective circumstance will most likely call for の. It is a dummy noun, meaning it doesn't have all the freedoms of a true noun. That's why we see it in grammar patterns like のだ. When there is no need to portray an objective stance, の will also be the appropriate choice.  

Orthography Note: こと is frequently spelled as 事.  

Examples of こと & の 

1. 見ることは信ずることである。
Seeing is believing.  

Grammar Note: Whereas の is a dummy noun, こと is a true noun. Although Ex. 1 is a rather subjective thing to say, there is a sense of certainty that can be felt with the use of こと. However, at a more basic understanding of grammar,the use of こと is also necessary to set up the grammatical parallelism and comparison being made between "seeing" and "believing." These entities need to be expressed with true nouns, which is something that only こと can make possible. 

2. お二人が会うのは初めてですか。
Is this the first time you two have met?

3. カナダが寒いことに気づいた。(Objective)
I just noticed that Canada is cold.  

4. カナダがペンギンも生きれるほど寒いのに気づいたばっかりだわ。(Feminine)
I just realized that Canada is cold enough for penguins to even live. 

 Objectivity/subjectivity, although often a part of the equation, may not be the most important thing at work. In the following sentences, の just acts as a dummy noun for something else, but こと is more concrete, referring specifically to a situation. However, one can say that this is related to subjectivity being related to abstractness and objectivity being related to concreteness. 

5. どんなのを聞きましたか。　
What sort of thing did you listen to? 　　　

6. どんなことを聞きましたか。  
What sort of thing did you hear/ask?

In the first sentence の replaces some noun such as 曲. In the second, こと refers to a situation (状態). The response could be something like the following.

7. 彼が京都に行った｛と・か｝きました。 
I heard/asked that/whether he went to Kyoto.

Noun + のこと 

At a basic understanding, there are two different yet intertwined functions of こと. The first is to focus on a certain action or state as the object of attention. The other is to expand the scope of something to encompass the situation surrounding it. In this latter sense, it abstracts. At face value, this seems like the opposite of focusing. However, this isn't really the case. 

When こと attaches itself to verbs and adjectives, which in both cases could involve an entire sentence, こと packs up these expressions into a noun phrase, making it refer to the action/state at hand. This is the focusing aspect. When it follows a noun, however, it's following something that is already concrete to some extent. By using こと, which literally means "matter/circumstance," you're no longer literally talking about the physical entity at hand. Rather, you're talking about its essence, which is truly the matter at hand. 

8. あの事件のことをよく覚えています。
I remember that incident well.

Sentence Note: In this example, the speaker remembers a lot about the incident. If のこと were omitted, the speaker would still remember that the incident happened, but it wouldn't necessarily sound that he/she knows much about the incident.  

9. ピザのことをピッツアーと言う人がいます。 
There are some people who pronounce "piza" as "pittsā."

10. この文は現在のことを言っています。
This sentence is talking about the present.

11. 誰の事を指しているんですか。
Who are you referring to? 

12. 私たちはまだまだこの大きな地球のことを理解していないのです。
We still do not understand this great planet of ours.  

13. 自分のことをどのくらい知っていますか。
How much do you know about yourself?

14. 僕のことがすき？
Do you like me?　 

Sentence Note: In this example, the speaker is asking the listener not just that the listener likes "him" in the mere sense of physical attraction. The speaker is asking if that individual likes him at a personal level as well. In the case of 好きだ and 嫌いだ, the use of のこと also helps solve semantic ambiguity between two possible interpretations. If the sentence were just 僕が好き？, it would normally be interpreted as "do you like me?" but it could also mean "Do I like...?" depending on the context. The use of のこと, thus, helps bring clarity to what is the object at hand.  

More Examples

14. 彼 ( ) が 有名 ( ゆうめい ) な 音楽家 ( おんがくか ) だということを 知 ( ) りませんでした。
I didn't know that he is a famous musician.

15. あたし、そんなことはいわんかったわ。(Feminine; dialectical)
I didn't say anything like that!

16. もう 一 ( ) つ 君 ( ) に 尋 ( たず ) ねたいことがある。  (Male)
There's another thing I'd like to ask you about.

Speech Note: To a teacher say something more respectful like  先生、 もう 一 ( ) つ 伺 ( うかが ) いたいことがあるんですけれども（よろしいですか）。 

17. （あなたが） 見 ( ) たことを 話 ( ) してくださいませんか。
Could you tell me what you saw?

18. 恋人 こいびと たちは 一緒 いっしょ にサンバを 踊 おど るのをやめました。
The couple stopped dancing the samba together.

19. 毎日散歩 まいにちさんぽ するのは 健康 けんこう にとてもいいようです。
It seems that going for a walk every day is very good for your health.

20. 彼女 ( ) が 昨夜遅 ( さくやおそ ) く 帰 ( ) ってきたことを 知 ( ) ってた。
I've known that she came home late last night.

21. 彼女 ( ) のいうことを 真 ( ま ) に 受 ( う ) けたな。
You took her at her word, didn't you?

22. 何か 心配 ( しんぱい ) なことがあるんですか。
Is anything bothering you?

23. 新鮮 しんせん な 息 いき を 吸 す うことは 素晴 すば らしい。
Breathing fresh air is wonderful. 

24. これからのことを 考 ( ) えるのは 賢 ( かしこ ) いですね。
It sure is wise to think about the future?

25. 容疑者 ようぎしゃ がその 部屋 から 慌 あわ てて 出 てくるのを 見 ましたよ。
I saw the suspect come out flustered from the room. 

26. 宿題 ( ) をしないで 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) に 来 ( ) るのはよくないです。
It's not good to come to class without having done our homework. 

27. 生 う まれたのも育ったのもニューヨークです。
I was born and raised in New York. 

Usage Note: It may be the case that の is used in place of a thing, person, or place. In this case の refers to the city that the speaker was raised in. 

28. 彼女の電話番号を調べるのに時間がかかった。
It took a lot of time to find her phone number.

29. 歌うことは 諦 ( あきら ) めていただけに 偶然 ( ぐうぜん ) （に） 初舞台 ( はつぶたい ) を 踏 ( ふ ) めたことはとても 嬉 ( うれ ) しかったです。
Since I had given up singing, being able to debut by chance was very delightful.

30. 教育 きょういく を受けるのは 重要 じゅうよう です。
Receiving an education is important.

31. 警察 けいさつ が今ここにあることは 疑 うたが えない。
You can't doubt that there are police here now.

33. 日本が経済大国になれたのは、何と言ってもアメリカのおかげではないと思います。
No matter what they say, I don't think that Japan was able to become an economic power thanks to America. 

34. 単純労働でお金を稼ぐのは大変だ。
It is difficult to earn money by simple labor.

35. 生まれたのは中国だが、国籍はインドネシアだ。
I was born in China, but my nationality is Indonesian. 

36. 明 あき らかに 情報 じょうほう をもう一度目を 通 とお すのは 当然 とうぜん ですよ。
It's evident that we clearly look over the information once more. 

Phrase Note: 目を 通 ( とお ) す ＝ To look/scan over.

     もの nominalizes something to show that something is undoubtedly true. 

37. 油 あぶら は 水 に 浮 う くものだ。
Oil floats on water.  

38. 子犬 ( ) になりたいものですわ！(Feminine)
I want to become a puppy!

39. よく 金曜日 ( ) に 海 ( ) で 泳 ( ) いだものだね。
I used to swim in the sea on Fridays, you know.

Phrase Note: よく…たものだ　＝　Used to.
Contraction Note: もの may be seen colloquially as もん. 
Origin Note: もの comes from the noun 物.

もの・物・者

 　　 もの can be anything. This もの can be in particle constructions like above. 物 is a tangible and perhaps living thing. It can even be a spiritual force. It's in many set expressions. It can even be used as a prefix. 者 refers to a person humbly or in a condescending manner.

40. 物 もの の 怪 け にとりつかれる。
To be possessed by an evil spirit.

41. 物 ( ) も 言 ( ) いようで 角 ( かど ) が 立 ( ) つ。
People may be offended by the way you speak.

42. 物 ( ) の数分もしないうちに
In no more than a few minutes. 

43. 物言 ものい えば 唇 くちびる 寒 さむ し。（Proverb)
Least said, soonest mended.

44. 早 ( ) い 者 ( もの ) 勝 ( が ) ち。
First come, first served.

There are many expressions with こと. Even though you may end up hating こと, you're going to have to use it a lot. 

 　　The nominalizer こと is used in a lot of set expressions that involve nominalization. In these expressions, you should not replace こと with の.

1. ～ことがある: With the past tense it means "have done" as you have done something before. With the non-past tense it means that you "often" do something. Note that you can't use ～ことがある for the “have” in expressions like "I have done my homework". This would be the "past perfect," in which case you would just use the auxiliary ～た.

1. 富士山に登ったことがありますか。
    Have you climbed Mt. Fuji before?

2. 私は酒を飲んだことがあります。
    I've had sake before. 

3. 北海道では四月でも雪が降ることがある。
     In Hokkaido, it snows often even in April.

4. 彼はジョギングすることがある。
    He often jogs.  

5. 彼女を見かけることがある。
    I often catch a glimpse of her. 

6. 東京で道に迷うことがあります。
    I often get lost in Tokyo.

7. 私は買い物に行くことがある。
    I often go shopping.

8. そのバスは遅れることがある。
    The bus is often late.

9. 香港に行くことがある。
    I often go to Hong Kong.

10. 私はフィンランドに行ったことがある。
     I've been to Finland.

11. 何度も寿司を食べたことがあります。
      I have eaten sushi many times.

12. あなたは歌舞伎を観たことがありますか。 
      Have you seen Kabuki before? 

13. この映画は前に見たことがある。
      I have seen this movie before.

2. ～ことがない: To have not done before. 

14. 東京に行ったことがありません。
      I haven’t gone to Tokyo.

16. 飛行機で行ったことがない。
      I haven’t gone by airplane.

17. 秋葉原に行ったことがありませんが、一度行ってみたいです。
      I haven't been to Akihabara, but I would like to go once.

Culture Note: 秋葉原, often shortened to 秋葉, is a popular place in Tokyo known for cheap electronics as well as cafes that cater to オタク・ヲタク. In メイド喫茶 maids dress up in uniform.  

3. ～ことはない:　It shows that something is not important/necessary or is an emphatic version of #2. 

18. 気にすることはない。
      There is no need to worry. 

19. 多分これからも外国に行くことはないでしょう。
      I probably won't go abroad from now on.

20. 彼の 方 ほう では何ら 困 こま ったことはない。
      There's no problem at his end.

4. ～ことにする・こととする： To decide. ～ことにしている shows that one makes a routine of doing something or that one is determined/has a strong commitment to doing something.

21. あいつを忘れることにしただけさ。(Very colloquial)
      I've just decided to just forget that guy.

22. 私はお酒を飲むのをやめることとしました。 (Slightly formal)
      I have decided to quit drinking liquor.

23. 毎日カルピスを飲むことにしています。
      I make it a rule to drink Calpis every day.

24. 英語では話さないことにしています。
      I am determined to not speak in English. 

5. ～ことになる・こととなる: To be decided

25. 今年日本に行くことになりました。
      It has been decided that I will go to Japan this year.

26. 新製品は５月１０日に発表することになりました。
      It has been decided that we will announce the new product on May 10th.

Grammar Notes:

1. こと is not needed with ～にする or ～になる when these phrases are used with a concrete noun.

2. ～ことになっている shows that the decision has been made for you. It is equivalent to "am to". It is also important in describes rules, traditions, etc.

3. と gives a more formal and punctual feeling.

6. ～ということだ: It is said that

27. ロケットが打ち上げられたということだ。
　    It is said that a rocket was launched.

7. ～ことだろう: Probably

28.. さぞかし無念｛な・だった｝ことだろう。  (やや書き言葉的)
        It was certainly regretful.

8. ～ことだし: Is, so

29. 子供の（した）ことだし、彼女を許してくれないか。
      It was a childish thing to do, so won't you forgive her?

9. ～ことこのうえない: There's nothing better than

30. ウケいいことこの上ない。
      Nothing is more popular than this.

10. ～ことに（は）: In being

     With the negative it shows that when you don’t do X, Y is an undesirable result.

31. ありがたいことに、全員が無事だった。
      In being grateful, everyone was alright.

32. 早く出発しないことには、大変なことになる。
      In not departing early, it'll become an ordeal. 

11. ～ことと思う: Hope that

33. ご承知のことと思いますが。
      I hope you are aware, but...

12. ～のこと: Strengthens an adverb and is typically only used in certain expressions. 

34. もちろん（のこと）、あいつは失敗した。
      Of course that guy failed.

13. AことはAが:  It's (the case that)...but

35. おいしいことはおいしいが、ちょっと高すぎる。
      It’s delicious, but it’s a little too expensive.

14. Adj. +　こと: Makes an adverb. It isn't really constructive and is only limited to certain phrases.

36. 長いこと待つ。
      To wait for a long time.

15. ～ってことよ: It creates an admonishing tone. Remember that って　＝　という

37. いいってことよ。
      It's alright!

16. ～ことなく: Without

This pattern should not be used with habitual actions.

38. ためらうことなく、消防士は燃えている家に入った。
      The firefighters went into the burning house without hesitation.

17. ～ことなしに:  Not possible without

39. 福田社長はしょうことなしに謝罪をした。
      Company President Fukuda apologied with little choice. 

40. 試験に合格することなしに、この会社には入れません。
      It is not possible to get into this company without passing the exam.

18. ～に事寄せて: On the plea/context of

41a. 彼女は出張に事寄せて東京市内の観光をしました。
41b. 彼女は出張を口実に東京市内の観光をしました。
41c. 彼女は出張に託けて東京市内の観光をしました。
        She went sightseeing in Tokyo on the pretext of a business trip.

19. ～こともなげに:  Easily; as if nothing happened

42. 彼は仕事を事もなげにやってのけた。
       He pulled the job off as if nothing happened.

20. {どれだけ・どんなに}…ことか: Oh how….!

43. どれだけ雨が降ったことか。
      Oh how it rained!

44. どんなに料理がおいしかったことか。 
      Oh how the dish was delicious! 

45. どれだけ私が急いだことか。
      Oh how I was in a rush!

46. どれだけあなたが食べたことか。 
      Oh how you ate! 

Contraction Note: ことは as well as とは can be contracted to こ（っ）たぁ・こっちゃ and たあ respectively in slang. 

～だけ（のこと） 

47.  公費 こうひ を 削減 さくげん するだけのことはある。
      Cutting public spending is worth it.

48. 高くても、買っただけのことはある。
      Although it was expensive, it has its worth for being bought.  

49. 高かっただけのことはあるよね。
      It was expensive, but it was worth it.  

50. さすが（に）大学に行っただけのことはある。
      As expected, he has worth from going to college.

      ～だけ（のことは）あって describes a circumstance that fulfills expectations. It is interchangeable with ～だけに, but there is a slight nuance difference. With ～だけに, the situation expected might not happen, making it an unexpected surprise. It may also be found in the pattern "AがAだけに". With A in mind, there is plenty of reason for a certain outcome.

51. ここは 有名 ( ゆうめい ) なだけに、 沢山 ( たくさん ) の人が 訪 ( おとず ) れます。
      Since this place is famous, a lot of people visit.

52. 母も書道もあまりに身近な存在だっただけに、客観視することができなかったのかもしれない。
Since mom also had too close of an existence with calligraphy too, she might not have been able to see (her work) from an objective point of view.
By 武田双雲 in the 文藝春秋 2008 (2).

53. よく勉強しただけに、いい成績で合格しました。
      Since I studied hard, I passed with good grades as expected.

Sentence Note: This student probably normally doesn't study, but this time he/she did and as expected from good effort, he/she got a just reward.

54. 彼は 政治家 せいじか だけに口が 巧 うま いでしょう。
      He's probably a good talker since he's a politician.

Word Note:  政治屋 ( せいじや )  would be a much more fitting word for this sentence, but it is a sensitive word to some due to implying the politician is in it for the money.  

55. 津波で町全体が荒らされただけに、一戸の建物さえ残っているのにびっくりしました。
Since the entire town was devastated by the tsunami, I was surprised that just one building remained. 

56. 民主党が勝手に頑固たる政策方針を結束して言い張り続けただけに、選挙戦に敗戦して自民党・公明党が当選を果たしたのであろう。(Literary)
Since the DJP continued to insist in solidarity on their stubborn policy stance as they pleased, they lost in the election battle and the LDP and Komeito won in the language (as expected).

History Note: On December 16, 2012 the Democratic Party of Japan lost to the Liberal Democratic Party, which won the majority of seats, and Komeito in a sweeping election, which would make 安部晋三（あべしんぞう） Prime Minister for the second time.  

57. 韓国は儒教文化が残るとされる国なだけに、パク・クネ氏が初めての女性として大統領選挙で選び出されたことは韓国社会の変化を象徴しているだけでなく、アジア諸国の社会変動も象徴しているのかもしれません。
Since South Korea is deemed to be a country where Confucian culture still remains, the election of Park Geun-hye as the first female president not only symbolizes change in Korean society, but it may also symbolize societal change in all of Asia. 

History Note: Park Geun-hye of the Saenuri Party of South Korea was elected with over 50% of the vote, a first for a presidential candidate in that country, as the first woman president on December 19, 2012. 

58. 敵の防壁を潔く突破しただけに、宮殿に入ってからすぐに殺されたという戦死の告知は母国に大嘘だと見なされた。
Since (he) had gracefully burst through the enemy bulwark, the notice of his death in war after being killed once he had entered the palace was taken as a big lie in his homeland. 

59. インドネシアは赤道に近いだけあって、うだるように蒸し暑いですね。僕の親友がジャワ島に住んでいますから、訪ねるために身軽な服装を持っていかないといけないでしょう。
Since Indonesia is close to the Equator, it's seething hot, isn't it? As my close friend lives on Java Island, I'll probably have to take light clothing to visit.  

60. ミス東大だけに美人だ。
      Since she's Miss Todai, she's a beauty.

Word Note: 東大 ＝　東京大学.

61. 明日はテストだけあってみんな眠そうだ。
      Since there is a test tomorrow, everyone is sleepy.  

62. 台風の被害が大きかっただけに、都市の 復興振 ふっこうぶ りには目を見張るものがあった。
Since the damage from the typhoon was large, there was quite something to behold in the state of reconstruction.

Usage Note: The usage of だけに to show something unexpected is becoming rarer nowadays. 

63. 被害が大きかっただけに、復旧も困難を極めた。
      Since the damage was large, restoration was extremely difficult.

結婚 ( けっこん ) することになりました VS　結婚することにしました

This is a rule of thumb, but Japanese themselves don't always follow through all the time. Some may purposely use the wrong one to make people laugh or what not. 

In this lesson, you will be introduced to the particle nagara ながら. This particle is a conjunctive particle that is typically used to mean “while” in the sense of doing two things at the same time or in the same time span. Because using it will require conjugation, we’ll look at that first before delving into how it’s used.

As you can see, using nagara ながら from the point of conjugation is no different than using –masu ます.

The primary use of nagara ながら is to show simultaneous action or in the same time span. The clauses of the sentence you make must have the same subject, and the main verb of the sentence is found in the latter clause.

1. テレビを 見 ( み ) ながらご 飯 ( はん ) を 食 ( た ) べる。
Terebi wo minagara gohan wo taberu.
To eat one’s meal while watching TV.

2. ご 飯 ( はん ) を 食 ( た ) べながらテレビを 見 ( み ) る。
Gohan wo tabenagara terebi wo miru.
To watch TV while eating one’s meal.

As you can see, nagara ながら stands for the “while” in these two sentences. The primary action is also clearly different. This is an incredibly important point because it is not always the case that switching the verb that has nagara ながら results in a sensible statement.

3a. 泣 ( な ) きながら 玉 ( たま ) ねぎを 切 ( き ) っていました。○
　Nakinagara tamanegi wo kitte imashita.
     I was cutting up onions with tears streaming down.
3b.  玉 ( たま ) ねぎを 切 ( き ) りながら 泣 ( な ) いていました。??
　Tamanegi wo kirinagara naite imashita.
　I was crying as I was cutting up onions.

You are cutting onions while crying because the onions are undoubtedly making you cry. In Japanese, this is expressed with 3a. Let's say, for some odd reason, your other half decided to break up with you over Facebook right before you began to prepare yourself a meal containing onion. Way before you cut into the first onion, you're already shedding a large volume of tears. In this situation, 3b. would make sense. Although the English could still imply cause-and-effect between "crying" and "cutting onions," the onions are not the cause of crying in 3b as is the case in 3a. 

4. 辞書 ( じしょ ) で 知 ( し ) らない 単語 ( たんご ) を 調 ( しら ) べながら、フランス 語 ( ご ) の 本 ( ほん ) を 読 ( よ ) みたいと 思 ( おも ) います。○
　Jisho wo shiranai tango wo shirabenagara, Furansugo no hon wo yomitai to omoimasu.
    I want to read a French book while looking up words I don’t know with a dictionary.
　フランス 語 ( ご ) の 本 ( ほん ) を 読 ( よ ) みながら 辞書 ( じしょ ) で 知 ( し ) らない 単語 ( たんご ) を 調 ( しら ) べたいと 思 ( おも ) います。??
　Furansugo no hon wo yominagara jisho de shiranai tango wo shirabetai to omoimasu.
    I want to look up words I don’t know about as I’m reading a French book.

You've just received a French novel for the first time. Excited, you also realize that a dictionary will be your best friend to look up words you don’t know in said book. Because reading the book is the primary action, the first sentence is what makes sense. Now, say you are randomly looking up words you don't happen to know irrespective of the French book you’re reading. Maybe you decide to look up Spanish words randomly instead. In such an odd situation, the latter may make sense, but you’d best explain yourself.

More Examples 

5. 天津 ( てんしん ) で 働 ( はたら ) きながら 中国語 ( ちゅうごくご ) を 学 ( まな ) んでいます。
　Tenshin de hatarakinagara chūgokugo wo manande imasu.
    I’m studying Chinese while working in Tianjin.

6. 歩 ( ある ) きながら 読書 ( どくしょ ) をするのはとても 危険 ( きけん ) です。
　Arukinagara dokusho wo suru no wa totemo kiken desu.
    Reading a book while walking is very dangerous.

7. コーヒーを 飲 ( の ) みながら、ゆっくりと 会話 ( かいわ ) しましょう。
　Kōhii wo nominagara, yukkuri to kaiwa shimashō.
    Let’s converse slowly while we drink coffee.

8. 車 ( くるま ) を 運転 ( うんてん ) しながら 電話 ( でんわ ) をしてはいけません。
　Kuruma wo unten shinagara, denwa wo shite wa ikemasen.
    You mustn’t talk on the phone while driving a car.

9. 先生 ( せんせい ) の 話 ( はなし ) を 聞 ( き ) きながら、ノートにメモを 取 ( と ) ります。
　Sensei no hanashi wo kikinagara, nōto ni memo wo torimasu.
    I take notes in my notebook while listening to my teacher.

10. ご 飯食 ( はんた ) べながら 話 ( はな ) さないで、 行儀 ( ぎょうぎ ) が 悪 ( わる ) いのよ！ (Feminine)
　  Gohan tabenagara hanasaide, gyōgi ga warui no yo!
      Don’t talk while eating your food; what bad manners!

11. 電話 ( でんわ ) で 話 ( はな ) しながらタバコを 吸 ( す ) うのはマナー 違反 ( いはん ) だと 思 ( おも ) いませんか。
　  Denwa de hanashinagara tabako wo sū no wa manā ihan da to omoimasen ka?
      Don’t you think smoking while talking on the phone is a breach of etiquette?

12. 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) しながらピザを 食 ( く ) ってて 気 ( き ) づいたらなくなっていた。
　  Shukudai shinagara piza wo kuttete kizuitara nakunatte ita.
      I was eating pizza while doing my homework, but once I noticed it was gone.

13. 晴 ( は ) れた 日 ( ひ ) に 好 ( す ) きな 音楽 ( おんがく ) を 聴 ( き ) きながらドライブ（を）するのって 至福 ( しふく ) のひと 時 ( とき ) だと 思 ( おも ) いません？
Hareta hi ni suki na ongaku wo kikinagara doraibu (wo) suru no tte shifuku no hitotoki da to omoimasen ka?
Don’t you think driving while listening to your favorite music on a clear day is a blissful moment?

14. 私 ( わたし ) は 新聞 ( しんぶん ) を 読 ( よ ) みながら、バスを 待 ( ま ) っていました。
　  Watashi wa shimbun wo yominagara, basu wo matte imashita.
     I was waiting for the bus while reading the newspaper.

15. 町 ( まち ) の 銀行 ( ぎんこう ) で 働 ( はたら ) きながら、 気象予報士 ( きしょうよほうし ) の 勉強 ( べんきょう ) をしています。
　  Machi no ginkō de hatarakinagara,  kishō yohōshi no benkyō wo shite imasu.
      I’m studying to be a weather forecaster while working at the town bank.

16. ともかく、 人 ( ひと ) は 悩 ( なや ) みながら 生 ( い ) きるしかないんですか。
　  Tomokaku, hito wa nayaminagara ikiru shika nai n desu ka?
      Anyhow, do people have no choice but to live in worry?

17. 聴衆 ( ちょうしゅう ) の 人 ( ひと ) たちも 笑顔 ( えがお ) を 見 ( み ) せながら 熱心 ( ねっしん ) に 聞 ( き ) いていた。
　 Chōshū no hitotachi mo egao wo misenagara nesshin ni kiite ita.
     The people in the audience were also listening with enthusiasm while showing smiles in their faces.

18. 部活 ( ぶかつ ) もやりながら、 塾 ( じゅく ) に 通 ( かよ ) っていました。
 　 Bukatsu mo yarinagara, juku ni kayotte imashita.
      I was attended cram school while also doing club activities.

19. 大学 ( だいがく ) に 通 ( かよ ) いながら、 月 ( つき ) に 60 ( ろくじゅう ) 万円 ( まんえん ) くらい 稼 ( かせ ) いでいました。
　  Daigaku ni kayoinagara, tsuki ni rokujūman’en kurai kaseide imashita.
     I was earning about 600,000 yen a month while attending college.

20. 洗濯 ( せんたく ) が 終 ( お ) わるのを 待 ( ま ) ちながら、 明日 ( あす ) の 準備 ( じゅんび ) をしています。
　 Sentaku ga owaru no wo machinagara, ashita no jumbi wo shite imasu.
     I’m doing preparations for tomorrow while waiting for the wash to finish.

21. 乗客 ( じょうきゃく ) の 前 ( まえ ) でカップ 麺 ( めん ) を 食 ( た ) べながら 運転 ( うんてん ) する。
　 Jōkyaku no mae de kappumen wo tabenagara unten suru.
     To drive while eating cup noodles in front of passengers.

22. 料理 ( りょうり ) しながら、 同時 ( どうじ ) に 片付 ( かたづ ) けも 出来 ( でき ) るんですよ。
　 Ryōri shinagara, dōji ni katazuke mo dekiru n desu yo.
     It’s possible to clean up simultaneously while cooking, you know.

23. 私 ( わたし ) は 毎日 ( まいにち ) 、 図書館 ( としょかん ) で 色々 ( いろいろ ) な 資料 ( しりょう ) を 調 ( しら ) べながら、 漢字 ( かんじ ) や 文法 ( ぶんぽう ) など 勉強 ( べんきょう ) しています。
Watashi wa mainichi, toshokan de iroiro na shiryō wo shirabenagara, kanji ya bumpō nado benkyō shite imasu.
I’m studying Kanji and grammar in the library every day while examining various materials.

24. 電話 ( でんわ ) をかけながらや、LINEなどのテキストメッセージを 打 ( う ) ちながら 注文 ( ちゅうもん ) をすることは 店員 ( てんいん ) さんに 対 ( たい ) して、あまりにも 失礼 ( しつれい ) な 行為 ( こうい ) なんですよ。
Denwa wo kakenagara ya, Rain nado no tekisuto messēji wo uchinagara chūmon wo suru koto wa ten’intachi ni tai shite, amari ni mo shitsurei na kōi na n desu yo.
Ordering while being on the phone or typing text messages on LINE and such is beyond rude behavior toward employees.

Grammar Note: As this sentence demonstrates, nagara ながら can interestingly accept certain particles like ya や at times. This shows that it is somewhat noun-like. In this example, there is a need to refer to more than one ancillary verb phrase that is done with the same verb, and rather than repeating the same thing twice with slightly different context, just using nagara ya ながらや makes everything easier.

Instantaneous Verbs X 

Using nagara ながら with verbs that describe instant occurrences is incorrect. Therefore, it cannot be used with verbs like shinu 死ぬ, tsuku つく, kieru 消える, etc. For verbs that take hardly any time at all to take place, if the main action takes more time than the secondary verb in the first clause with nagara ながら, then the usage is incorrect.

25. 座 ( すわ ) りながら 話 ( はな ) しませんか。X
      Suwarinagara hanashimasen ka?
      座 ( すわ ) って 話 ( はな ) しませんか。○
      Suwatte hanashimasen ka?
     How about we sit and talk?

Te て or Nagara ながら? 

Sometimes, using nagara ながら may resemble using the particle te て since the verb that goes with nagara ながら is a secondary action. However, ancillary actions described with te て tend to be means by which to do something or condition by which things happen. This difference means that te て and nagara ながら can indeed coexist in the same sentence. 

26. 車 ( くるま ) での 通勤時 ( つうきんじ ) に 必 ( かなら ) ずテープを 聞 ( き ) いて 英語 ( えいご ) を 勉強 ( べんきょう ) しています。
      Kuruma de no tsūkinji ni kanarazu tēpu wo kiite eigo wo benkyō shite imasu.
     I’m studying English by always listening to tapes when I commute by car.

27. 車 ( くるま ) で 通勤 ( つうきん ) しているときは 必 ( かなら ) ず 英会話 ( えいかいわ ) のテープを 聴 ( き ) きながら 運転 ( うんてん ) します。
      Kuruma de tsūkin shite iru toki wa kanarazu eikaiwa no tēpu wo kikinagara unten shite imasu.
      I’m driving while always listening to English conversation times when commuting by car.

28. 文化 ( ぶんか ) も、 時代 ( じだい ) の 流 ( なが ) れに 合 ( あ ) わせて 進化 ( しんか ) しながら 変 ( か ) わっていかなければなりません。
      Bunka mo, jidai no nagare ni awasete shinka shinagara kawatte ikanakereba narimasen.
     Culture must also change as it evolves along with the trends of the times.

29. 犬 ( いぬ ) の 散歩 ( さんぽ ) をしながら 歩 ( ある ) きタバコをする 人 ( ひと ) は 迷惑 ( めいわく ) だ。
      Inu no sampo wo shinagara aruki-tabako wo suru hito wa meiwaku da.
      People who smoke and walk while walking their dogs are bothers. 

Grammar Note: Some nagara ながら expressions refer to two actions done in tandem so much so that they result in set phrases without nagara ながら. This explains aruki-tabako歩きタバコ.  Other examples include aruki-sumaho 歩きスマホ (using one’s smart phone while walking), tabearuki 食べ歩き (eating while walking), etc.

Nagara-zoku ながら族

Nagara-zoku ながら族 is a set phrase that refers to people who do all sorts of things while they’re supposed to be focusing on work or the like. As is the case in this sentence, it can be used as a nice context to string several nagara ながら phrases together.

30. ながら 族 ( ぞく ) って、 大勢 ( おおぜい ) いるんじゃないですか。 俺 ( おれ ) だって、 携帯電話 ( けいたいでんわ ) を 見 ( み ) ながら、テレビを見ながら、お 酒 ( さけ ) を 飲 ( の ) みながら、お 菓子 ( かし ) を 食 ( た ) べながら、 頭 ( あたま ) を 掻 ( か ) きながら、パソコンでRedditの 質問 ( しつもん ) に 回答 ( かいとう ) しています。
Nagara-zoku tte, ōzei iru n ja nai desu ka? Ore datte, keitai denwa wo minagara, terebi wo minagara,osake wo nominagara, okashi wo tabenagara, atama wo kakinagara, pasokon de reditto no shitsumon ni kaitō shite imasu.
Aren’t there lots of people who do all sorts of stuff while they’re working? Like even me, I’m answering questions on Reddit on my computer while looking at my cellphone, while watching TV, while drinking liquor, while eating sweets, while scratching my head, etc. 

This lesson is a continuation of Lesson 25. Currently, coverage that was previously in the old versions of these lessons are being expanded. As this coverage is completed, this lesson will be moved next to Lesson 25. At which point, Lesson 105 will become one of the new offshoots. 

Many Westerners are familiar with the phrase o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか, which translates as “how are you?” The word genki 元気 is an adjectival noun meaning “lively/healthy.” Because one can usually tell whether someone is doing alright in this regard, o-genki desu ka?お元気ですか is most often used over the phone or via letter where you aren’t able to directly ascertain how the person is (Ex. 1 and 2). Or, it is used in asking others about how people not present are doing.

1. お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。 私 ( わたし ) は 元気 ( げんき ) です。
O-genki desu ka? Watashi wa genki desu.
How are you? I’m fine.  

2. お 久 ( ひさ ) しぶりです。お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
O-hisashiburi desu. O-genki desu ka?
It’s been a while. How are you?

3. ご 家族 ( かぞく ) はお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
Go-kazoku wa o-genki desu ka?
How is your family?

4. ご 両親 ( りょうしん ) はお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
Go-ryōshin wa o-genki desu ka?
How are your parents doing?

5. 木村 ( きむら ) さん、お 元気 ( げんき ) ですか。
奥 ( おく ) さんもお 変 ( か ) わりありませんか。
Kimura-san, o-genki desu ka?
Oku-san mo o-kawari arimasen ka?
Kimura-san, how are you?
Is your wife also doing well?

Phrase Note: お変わりありませんか literally means “have there been any changes?”

6. おかげで、お 母 ( かあ ) さんも 僕 ( ぼく ) も 元気 ( げんき ) です。
O-kage de, o-kāsan mo boku mo genki desu.
Thankfully, mother and I are also well.

If there is an existing relationship with who you are speaking and that individual need not be addressed with particularly formal language, then this may also be simply said as genki desu ka? 元気ですか. This is best used in situation where you’re addressing people informally.

7. みんな 元気 ( げんき ) ですか！
Min’na genki desu ka?
How is everyone!

Like the English equivalent, it is mostly used as a greeting. It is not used to mean “are you ok?” when you’re worried about someone. It is also not a greeting that is used every day. Even if It is used directly with someone, it wouldn’t sound like you really know the individual at a personal level. Although students use it as an everyday greeting, this usage is unnatural and not reflective of how it is actually used by native speakers.

Politeness Note: To make o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか  politer, replace desuです with deshō でしょう.

If you haven’t seen someone in a while and want to know how they’ve been, it’s best to ask (o-)genki deshita ka? （お）元気でしたか。Casually, this would become genki (datta)? 元気（だった）？

8. 幸 ( さっ ) ちゃん、 元気 ( げんき ) ？
Satchan, genki?
Satchan! How are you?

In far more formal situations, other phrases may be appropriate.

9. ご 無事 ( ぶじ ) でいらっしゃいますか。
Go-buji de irasshaimasu ka?
Have you been safe and well?

Phrase Note: This phrase would be used in writing. De irasshaimasu ka? でいらっしゃいますか is a very formal, respectful form of the copula. You can alternatively make this not so formal by replacing it with desu です. In the spoken language, you can ask people buji desu ka? 無事ですか to ask about the safety of everyone, which is used frequently when disasters happen.

10. ご 機嫌 ( きげん ) いかがですか。
Go-kigen ikaga desu ka?
How are you?

Sentence Note: Kigen 機嫌 means “mood.” This phrase more so literally means “how do you do?” but it isn’t old-fashioned like this English counterpart. For the most part, it’s treated as a more formal, elegant replacement for o-genki desu ka? お元気ですか. However, it isn’t appropriate in business because it isn’t the case that clients/customers are always in high spirits, and it isn’t the right place to assume this.  

11. ご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) しております。お 元気 ( げんき ) でいらっしゃいますか。
Go-busata shite orimasu. O-genki de irasshaimasu ka?
I’m sorry for not hearing from you all this time. Are you doing well?

Sentence Note: Imagine if you haven’t spoken or heard from a superior or someone of high social status for a while. Although blame for this lack of communication could be on both sides, a very honorific opening such as this would be very appropriate.

12. 長 ( なが ) らくご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) してすみません。
Nagaraku go-busata shite sumimasen.
I apologize for not hearing from you in so long.

13. ご 無沙汰 ( ぶさた ) ｛しました・いたしました｝。
Go-busata [shimashita/itashimashita].
It’s been a long time.

Sentence Note: This phrase would be appropriate especially when you’re recognizing how long it’s been since you’ve updated people. Itashimashita いたしました is a more humble version of shimashita しました.

14. いかがお 過 ( す ) ごしでしょうか。
Ikaga o-sugoshi deshō ka?
How are things with you?

Sentence Note: This phrase is also quite honorific and is appropriate in very formal situations, both written and spoken.

15. しばらくでしたね。
Shibaraku deshita ne.
It’s been a while, hasn’t it?

Responding

In response to being asked how you are doing, use phrases like ē, o-kage-sama de ええ、おかげさまで. This is equivalent to “Yes, I’m fine. Thank you.” This can also be used in the sense of “It went fine/I did, thank you.”

16. 「ご 家族 ( かぞく ) の 皆 ( みな ) さんはお 元気 ( げんき ) ですか」「ええ、おかげさまで、みんな 元気 ( げんき ) にしていますよ」
“Go-kazoku no mina-san wa o-genki desu ka?” “Ē, o-kage-sama de, min’na genki ni shite imasu yo”
“How is everyone in your family doing?” “They’re all doing fine, thank you.”

17. 「 試合 ( しあい ) はうまくいきましたか」「ええ、おかげさまで」
“Shiai wa umaku ikimashita ka?” “Ē, o-kage-sama de.”
“Did your match go okay?” “Yes, it did, thankfully.” 

The Japanese equivalent of “long time no see” is  (o-)hisashiburi desu (ne)（お）久しぶりです（ね）. The use of o- お at the beginning is determined by whether the person in question is someone you ought to give respect to. The use of ne ね at the end is determined by whether you wish to imply a mutual understanding that it’s been a while since you’ve last seen that person.

Casually, “long time no see” can be expressed simply as hisashiburi 久しぶり or alternatively as hisabisa da ne 久々だね.

18. 皆さん、お 久 ( ひさ ) しぶりです。
Mina-san, o-hisashiburi desu.
Long time no see, everyone.

19. おお、 久々 ( ひさびさ ) だね！
Ō, hisabisa da ne!
Whoa, long time no see!

20. 調子はどうですか？
Chōshi wa dō desu ka?
How are you doing?

Sentence Note: This expression is frequently used when meeting someone after a while. Chōshi 調子 in this context means “state of health.” To say this casually, just drop desu ka? ですか.

21. 最近 ( さいきん ) どう？
Saikin dō?
How’ve you been recently?

Sentence Note: To make this polite, just add desu ka? ですか. A simple reply would be māmā (desu) まあまあ（です）.

22. ずいぶんお 見限 ( みかぎ ) りでしたね。
Zuibun o-mikagiri deshita ne.
I haven’t seen you in ages.

Sentence Note: This phrase isn’t all that common, but whenever it is used, there is typically a slight amount of sarcasm implied, hinting at how the other person hasn’t been available to see.

23. おひさ！　
O-hisa!
Hey, long time no see!

The Japanese expression for “congratulations” is omedetō (gozaimasu) おめでとう（ございます）. The full version is, of course, the polite form. This phrase is seen at the end of congratulatory phrases.

24. （お） 誕生日 ( たんじょうび ) おめでとうございます。
(O-)tanjōbi omedetō gozaimasu.
Happy birthday.

25. 明 ( あ ) けましておめでとうございます。
Akemashite omedetō gozaimasu.
Happy New Year.

26. ご 入学 ( にゅうがく ) おめでとうございます。
Go-nyūgaku omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on enrollment.

27. ご 結婚 ( けっこん ) おめでとうございます。
Go-kekkon omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on your marriage.

28. ご 出産 ( しゅっさん ) おめでとうございます。
Go-shussan omedetō gozaimasu.
Congratulations on giving birth.

The word for “please” as in “by all means” is dōzo どうぞ. It is often paired with the verbal ending -te kudasai ～てください, which creates a polite command/request.

29. どうぞ。
Dōzo.
Please, by all means.

30. どうぞ 上 ( あ ) がってください。
Dōzo agatte kudasai.
Please, come in.

Sentence Note: This phrase is used when letting people into one’s home.

31. お 先 ( さき ) にどうぞ。
O-saki ni dōzo.
Please go ahead.

32. どうぞお 構 ( かま ) いなく。
Dōzo o-kamai naku.
Please don’t fuss over me.

33. どうぞこちらへ。
Dōzo kochira e.
This way, please.

34. どうぞ 召 ( め ) し 上 ( あ ) がってください。
Dōzo meshiagatte kudasai.
Please enjoy your meal.

If there is no sense of “by all means,” you should simply using -te kudasai ～てください.  Of course, in casual speech, you are free to drop kudasai ください.

35. 書類 ( しょるい ) を 纏 ( まと ) めてください。
Shorui wo matomete kudasai.
Please compile the documents.

When meeting people for the first time regardless of the appropriate speech style for the occasion, Japanese people greet each other by saying hajimemashite 初めまして. Following this, most people state their name. At the end, speakers will tell each other to keep the other in good thought. The phrase that’s said for this is yoroshiku onegai [shimasu/itashimasu] よろしくお願い｛します・いたします｝. Although there is a lot that can be said about it, for now treat it as a set phrase set after introducing oneself. Typically, kochira koso こちらこそ (likewise) is added when you’re not the first to introduce oneself.

Intonation Note: はじめまして.

36.

はじめまして、 佐々木 ( ささき ) ｛と 申 ( もう ) します・です｝。
よろしくお 願 ( ねが ) い｛します・いたします｝。
Hajimemashite, Sasaki [to mōshimasu/desu].
Yoroshiku o-negai [shimasu/itashimasu].
Nice to meet you. I’m Sasaki. Please keep me in good thought.

Sentence Note: The phrase to mōshimasu と申します literally means “am called.” 

There are two broad usages of the word “okay” that you will need to separate when speaking in Japanese. The first application of “okay” is asking if someone is alright. The second application is asking if something is alright. If you are concerned about the well-being of someone, use Ex. 37. If you are concerned about something being okay, use expressions as seen with Exs. 38-40.

37. 大丈夫 ( だいじょうぶ ) ですか。
Daijōbu desu ka?
Are you okay?
Is that alright/okay?

Sentence Note: To make this casual, just drop desu ka? ですか. The response, regardless of whether one is really okay or not, is usually daijōbu (desu) 大丈夫（です）.

38. よろしいですか。
Yoroshii desu ka?
Is that alright/okay?

39. それでも｛いい・大丈夫｝ですか。
Sore demo [ii/daijōbu] desu ka?
Is it okay even if it’s that?

40. 本当 ( ほんとう ) にいいの？
Hontō ni ii no?
Are you sure it’s okay?

Who knew that expressing easy and difficult could both in fact be slightly difficult in Japanese?  

Part of Speech Note: These endings are all adjectival.  

～やすい, when used with transitive verbs, shows that something is easy to do.When used with intransitive verbs, it means that something is easy to occur.

1. このサンドイッチは小さくて、 食 べやすいよ。
    This sandwich is small and easy to eat.

2. そのペンはとても 書 きやすいです。
    That pen is very easy to write with.

4. 白 いシャツは 汚 よご れやすい。
    White shirts easily get dirty.  

5. インターネットを 使 いやすくしたのは誰でしょうか。
    Who was it that made the internet easier to use.

6. 僕 にはこの 車 は 運転 うんてん しやすい。
    This car is easy for me to drive.

Instead of ～やすい, the adjective よい may also be used. This, though, is very old-fashioned or unheard to speakers depending on where the person is from. Some natives may not even recognize it as being correct Japanese, but it does indeed exist. In fact, it is still extremely common even in the form ～いい in 関東弁. Its usage in the capital region is still prevalent in people 60 and older. 

7. 咳止 せきど め 薬 ぐすり は 飲 みよいはずである。（あまり使われていない)
    咳止 め 薬 は 飲 みやすいはずだ。（Natural)
    The cough medicine should be easy to take.

～ 難 にく い shows either that something is difficult to do or to occur. ～ 難 がた いonly shows the inability to do something, and it is usually restricted to writing and set expressions. Lastly, ～辛い may be used instead of ～にくい to describes undesirable circumstances. These endings attach to the 連用形 of verbs and conjugate as 形容詞. 

8  この 本 ( ) は 読 ( ) みにくいです。
    This book is difficult to read.

9a. 歩 ( ) き 辛 ( ) い 道 ( ) は 坂道 ( さかみち ) だ。（ちょっと 不自然 ( ふしぜん ) ）
9b. 坂道 ( ) は、 歩 ( ) きづらい。（もっと 自然 ( ) ）
      A road difficult to walk on is a hill.

10a. 書 ( ) きよい 漢字 ( ) は 存在 ( そんざい ) するのかな？ （Old-fashioned)
10b. 書 ( ) きやすい 漢字 ( ) は 存在 ( ) するのかな？（Natural)
        I wonder if a Kanji that is easy to write exists.

11. 考 えにくいと 思 ( ) います。
      I think that is difficult to consider.

12. この 戸 ( ) は 開 ( ) きにくい。
      This door is difficult to open.

13. 字 ( ) が 薄 ( うす ) くて、 読 ( ) み づら ( ) いです。
      The letters are faded, and it is difficult to read.

14. 生徒達 ( ) は 皆 ( みな ) 教 ( ) え 難 ( がた ) くて、ぜんぜん言うことに 聞 ( ) かなくて、『いまび』を 滅多 ( めった ) に 読 ( ) まなくて、 困 ( こま ) ったんです。
My students are all very hard to teach because they never listen to what I say and rarely read IMABI; I'm very troubled by this.

15. 言 ( ) い｛ 難 ( がた ) い・にくい・づらい｝ことだ。
      It's hard to say.

16. 彼 ( ) は 付 ( ) き 合 ( ) い 難 ( がた ) いやつだな。
      He is a difficult person to get along with isn't he?

17. 彼女 ( ) の 言葉 ( ) は 聞 ( ) き 取 ( ) り 難 ( がた ) かった。
      Her speech was difficult to hear.

18. 日本 ( ) は住みにくいです。
       Living in Japan is difficult.

19. 彼女はその職の適任者とは言いがたい。 
      It's difficult to say that she is the right candidate for the job. 

Yes, the title is a pun.

過ぎる means "to pass" and is used both transitively and intransitively. It may be used in basically any situation that relates to someone or something passing by. ～過ぎる shows something "is too...”or someone is doing something "too much". When used with adjectives, you drop the く or に in the 連用形 altogether. Likewise, with 形容動詞, you don't use the copula.

漢字 Note: This is usually written in ひらがな when used as an ending.  

1. 酒を飲みすぎて、 二日酔 ふつかよ いがある。
    I drank too much sake, and I have a hangover.

2. 小さすぎる。大きいのがある？
    This is too small. Do you have a bigger one?

3. 食べ過ぎないでくださいね。
    Please don't overeat.

4. 真夜中 ( まよなか ) を過ぎる。
    To pass through midnight.

漢字 Note: Be careful to not confuse this 中 with the suffix ちゅう・じゅう. It turns out that 夜中, which is read as やちゅう, means "at night", but it's a 書き言葉.  

5. あんた、頭がよすぎるよ。(Casual; potentially rude)
    You're too smart!

6. この問題は難しすぎる。
    This question is too difficult.

7. そのカメラは高すぎるね。
    Isn't that camera too high?

8. 明日では 遅 ( おそ ) すぎるでしょう。
    Tomorrow will probably be too late.

9. 道路 (  どうろ ) の 横断 ( おうだん ) にはいくら 注意 ( ちゅうい ) してもしすぎることはない。
    You can never be too careful when crossing the street.

10. 君は彼女に 期待 ( きたい ) をかけすぎる。
     You expect too much of her.

11. いくら好きでも、食べすぎると、体に悪いです。
      No matter how much you like it, eating too much is bad for your health. 

12. 彼はやりすぎたよ。
     He went too far.

13. 時間が過ぎた。
　　 Time passed.

14. この物理学の問題は難しすぎて、理解するのは無理です。
      This physics problem is too difficult, and understanding it is useless.  

15. コンピューターの画面に近すぎないことが大切だ。
 　　 It's important to not get too close to the computer screen. 

16. 考え事をしながら歩いていたら、自分の家の前を通り過ぎてしまった。 　　　
      Lost in thought, I walked past my house.

Word Note: 通り過ぎる usually means to "pass by", but it can also have the sense "going too far".

Grammar Note: What about the negative? Take the following two similar phrases into consideration. 読まなすぎる vs. 読みすぎない. The first one states that one "reads too little". The second states that one "doesn't read too much". There may also be cases when ～なすぎる is inappropriate for pragmatic reasons in particular contexts.

17. 彼は何もできなすぎる。 △　
      He can't do anything.

 The Intensifier ～ない

There is also a suffix ～ない that increases the intensity of a given adjective. Inserting さ when using them with ～すぎる is wrong, but speakers occasionally do so anyway.  

The confusing part about this is that this does come from the negative ない. It so happened that late in Classical Japanese it acquired the meaning of just being an intensifier to particular phrases.

18. だらしない生活をする。
      To lead a sloven lifestyle. 

19. あの映画はまったくえげつないよ。
      That movie is just completely dirty.

20. はしたなく言い争う。
     To immodestly quarrel.

21. しがないサラリーマンの人生
      The humble life of a salary-man

22. あどけない子供の笑顔を見る。
      To look at the angelic smile of a child,

23. ぎこちなく運転しちゃだめだ。 
     Don't drive all clumsy. 

24. ｛いとけない・無邪気な｝子
      An innocent child 

25. 滅相もない・滅相なことをいうものじゃないよ！ 
      Don't say something so absurd!

There are a few cases where the original adjective and the adjective with the intensifier ～ない exist, just like above. Another example is   忙 せわ しない and 忙しい. The first means "seems busy" and the other means "really busy", but it is still the case that the former is more intense. 　

26. 彼はせわしい人だ。
     He's a real busybody. 

27. 忙しない季節 
      A season so busy with no time to rest

 Another odd pair is 切な versus 切ない. 切な is now typically 切なる, odd giving that this is more Classical in form. The word means "earnest", and you would think 切ない would mean that too. It did, but over time it gained more negative undertones, and now it refers to heartrending sadness. This, though, sprouted out from the meaning of "earnest".  

28. 切な（る）顔
      An earnest face

29. 切なさを堪える。
      To withhold heart-wrenching.  

Another weird word is 怪しからん. This comes from the old verb 怪しかる, but rather than being opposites, they accidentally became the same thing, both meaning "inexcusable".

30. 親切に扱ってくれた人の不満をいうとは怪しからん。(Dialectical/older person)     
      Complaining about those who have treated you well is inexcusable. 

    The 一段 verb  続 ( つづ ) ける means "to continue". The verb is normally used for "one's own" actions. If the verb happens naturally, the verb 続く is used instead. Although you would think that this distinction would be carried in compounds, ～続く is essentially only seen with the verb  降 ( ふ ) る. 

31. 日本語を勉強し続けてください。
      Please continue studying Japanese.

32. 我 (   わ ) がままを 通 ( とお ) し続ける。 
      Continue one's own way.

33. 彼氏んちまで歩き続けた。(Casual 東京弁)   
　　 I continued walking up to my boyfriend's house. 

34. 電話のベルは鳴り続けた。
　　 The phone kept ringing.

35. ハチ 公 ( こう ) は来る日も来る日も 主人 ( しゅじん ) の帰りを待ち続けた。
 　　Hachiko waited day after day for his master to return.

Culture Note: ハチ公 is a dog that was so loyal to his master, it waited for him to return at the station even after the owner's death.  

36. 彼らは 働 ( はたら ) き続けた。
　　 They continued working.

37. 赤ちゃんはぐっすりと 眠 ( ねむ ) り続けていた。
　　 The baby was continuing to sleep soundly.

38. 火が 燃 ( も ) え続けている。
　　 The fire is continuing to burn.

39. 雨が降り続いている。
　　 It is continuing to rain.

40. 既 　　　すで に 骸 むくろ になってしまったとはいえ、やはり母は、こうして祥子の頭をいためる存在であり続けるのだ。
Although she has already become a corpse, mother will after all continue an existence of having Sachiko ache this way. 
From 冷たい 誘惑 ゆうわく by 乃南 のなみ アサ.

漢字 Notes:

1. すでに is often not spelled in 漢字. However, 既に is more formal and literary.
2. 骸 means "corpse" and is stronger than other words like 遺体, which is typically used in news reports, or 死体.
3. 祥 is a name character meaning "auspicious".  
4. 乃 is also a name character. Its most important reading is の. This is used to write the particle の in many names and in old writing.  

 ～続ける VS ～のを続ける

These two patterns translate the same as "to continue...", but they're not exactly the same. ～続ける shows an action/state that is ongoing. The latter simply states that there is a continuation of some sort. For example, a way to distinguish this in English would be similar to "she is continuing to watch the show"  versus "she continues to watch the show". The first shows the ongoing state of her watching the show whereas the latter just states that she continues to regularly watch the show.

41. 彼女はその番組を観続けている。
      She's continuing to watch that show.

42. 彼女は、その番組を観るのを続けている。
      She continues to watch that show.

漢字 Note: You can use 見 instead of 観, but the latter is often used for watching things like movies, shows, etc.  

急 ぐ means "to hurry" and can be seen in both transitive and intransitive contexts. As a transitive verb, it can be used in compounds to show that one is trying to hurry and finish something. Its –て form 急いで can also be used to show this as an adverbial phrase. It is best for this ending to see it used in a compound verb before using it as such. 

43. 売り急ぐ。
     To be in a hurry to sell.

44a. リンゴを買い急ぐ。（ちょっと不自然)
44b. 急いでリンゴを買う。(もっと自然)
        To buy apples in a hurry.

45. 彼は死に急いだ。
      He hastened to his death.

46. 急いで 服 ( ふく ) を 着 ( き ) た。
      I hurried and got dressed.

47. 学校へ急ぐ。
     To hurry to school. 

Word Note:  焦 あせ る is not the same thing. This implies frustration that things might not go as planned.

48. 彼は焦って 失敗 ( しっぱい ) した。
　　  He hurried it and failed.  

　　　　These particles are very similar to だけ, but they're syntactically different. 

しか must be used with the negative form of a verb. It may follow nouns and even other particles such as those with に, で, and まで. In translation, it is close to "just/only" but with a nuance of "there is no choice but to," especially after verbal phrases.

Particle Note: The particle に may be deleted before しか!  

1. 後 あと たった（の） 一週間 いっしゅうかん しかありません。
    There's only one week left.

2. セミナーのレポートの 締 ( し ) め 切 ( き ) りは 明日 ( あした ) だ。 徹夜 ( てつや ) するしかない。
The deadline for the seminar report is tomorrow. I have no choice but to work on it all night long.

3. 今日のおやつこれしかないの。(Casual)
    Is this all there is for snacks today?

4. （ 事前 じぜん に・あらかじめ） 伝 つた えるしかない。
     I have no choice but to tell.

5. 歩くしかありません。
    You have no choice but to just walk.

6a. ローマ字だけ書けます。                  I can only write Roman letters.
6b. ローマ字しか書けません。              I can't write anything but Roman letters.

Particle Note: Although だけを is possible and relatively common, the equivalent with しか, をしか, is very literary and doesn't show up often.

7. 私が目に見える美をしか信じなかった以上、この態度は当然である。
    Since I could only believe the beauty that I could see in my eyes, this attitude is natural. 
From 金閣寺 by 三島由紀夫. 

8. いつしか時が流れた。
      Time slid by. 

Set Phrase Note: いつしか ＝ いつの間にか知らないうちに. It doesn't need to be used to be with the negative. 

You may also use だけ and しか together creating だけしか. Also, しか may be seen as しきゃ and っきゃ in slang.

9. やるっきゃないな。
     I have no choice but to do it.

 ほか Continued

    ほか means "aside from." Technically, it can also be seen in ～ほかない, which is synonymous to ～しかない.

10. 社長 しゃちょう ほか 五名 ごめい が 出席 しゅっせき
        Five in attendance aside from the company president.

11. どこかほかを 探 さが す。
      To search the rest.

12. 彼はこのほかに 何 なん と言った？
    What else did he say?

13a. 弁護士 べんごし は 文書 ぶんしょ だけでなく、 口頭 こうとう でも 説明 せつめい してくれた。
13b. 弁護士は文書をもってするほか、口頭でも説明してくれた。
        The lawyer explained orally aside from the use of documents. 

Creating an "if" statement in Japanese is not easy. This lesson will showcase to you three of the most common grammar points in Japanese to make conditional phrases. By no means, though, does this mean you will be able to master them completely by reading this lesson. The differences between these patterns are highly contextual, and it will still take a lot of practice to get the hang of them. So, by all means, please take your time as you read through this lesson. 

     The conjunctive と can be described as being in the part of the construction of the following constructs. For all of these constructs, the particle follows the non-past tense of a verb. 

1. When X happens, Y will happen. For example, "when you turn, there will be a bank".
2. When X happens, Y happens. For example, "when I opened the door, snow came in".
3. When/if..., then...   (Certain)

     So, "when X happens, Y happens". Y is predictable or an unavoidable fact. This is not an "if" statement. Even when it is translated with the word "if", Y is still something that is certain. So, this means that this pattern is not correct for requests, judgments, etc. These sorts of things don't have a 100% degree of certainty, and they can be easily refuted.

 Examples

1. 四月 ( ) になると、 桜 ( さくら ) が 咲 ( さ ) く。
    When it becomes April, cherry blossoms will blossom.

2. 先生 ( ) だと、きっと 年上 ( としうえ ) なんじゃないですか。
    If he's a teacher, surely he has to be older, right?

3. 病院 びょういん に 行 くと 藤原 さんがいました。
    When I went to the hospital, Mr. Fujiwara was there.

4. 今 出 かけないと 遅 おく れるよ。
    If you don't depart now, you'll be late.

5.  窓 まど を 開 あ けると、 牛 が 見 えます。
    When you open the window, you can see cows.

6. 日 ( ) が 昇 ( のぼ ) ると、 明 ( ) るくなります。
    When the sun rises, it becomes bright. 

7. 日 ( ) が 沈 ( しず ) むと、 暗 ( ) くなります。
    When the sun sets, it becomes dark.

8. 昆布 こんぶ や何かで 出汁 だし を 取 るといい。
    It would be good to gather soup stock with kombu or something. 

9. ３に２を 足 ( た ) すと、５になります。
     When we add 2 to 3, we get 5.

10. 雪 ( ) が 降 ( ふ ) り 始 ( ) めると、 動物 ( どうぶつ ) たちは 冬眠 ( とうみん ) を 始 ( ) める。
      When it begins to snow, the animals begin hibernation.

11. ワカメやヒジキを食べると髪が生える。
    Your hair grows when you eat wakame and hijiki.

Word Note: ワカメ and ヒジキ are different kinds of edible seaweed.  

12. ♪さかなさかなさかな～魚を食べると～♪あたまあたまあたま～頭がよくなる～♪
Fish, fish, fish, when you eat fish, your brain gets smart, your brain gets smart, your brain gets smart.

Practice (1): Translate the following. You may use a dictionary.

1. If you warm ice, it melts. 
2.  部屋 ( ) に入るとカーテンを 開 ( ) けた。
3. ボーイフレンドと京都に行きました。
4. ドアを開けると、犬がいた。 窓 ( まど ) を開けると、鳥がいた。そして、ゴミ 箱 ( ばこ ) を開けると、ねずみがいた。

なら may show advice. It can show things that would be realistic if something were to ever be the case. なら is called the contextual conditional because it is equivalent to "if you are talking about..., then...". Overall, なら(ば) is used to give suggestions, speculation, or requests. 

13. 中国 に 行 くなら、 万里 ばんり の 長城 ちょうじょう を 見 み てください。
      If you are going to China, please see the Great Wall.

14. カメラを 買 いたいなら、秋葉原に 行 った 方 がいいです。
      If you want to buy a camera, it's best to go to Akihabara.

15. 郵便局 ゆうびんきょく に 行 くなら、６０ 円 の 切手 きって を５ 枚 買 ってきてください。
      If you are going to the post office, please buy five 60 yen stamps.

16. いいえ、 売 ( ) り 切 ( ) れましたが、 自由席 ( じゆうせき ) ならあります。
      No, they are sold out, but we have unreserved seats.

17. どうしてもというなら 仕方 しかた がない。
      If you must, you have no choice.

18. それなら話は早い。  
      That makes it easy.  

19. 仕事 を 終 えたのなら、 帰 かえ っていいよ。
      You may leave provided/providing that you finished your work.

20. 知 っているんなら、 教 えてください。
      Providing that you know, please tell me.

Grammar Note: なら expresses the speaker's supposition or defines the basis of the statement. There is no required temporal ordering of the two situations presented. So, it can't be used to show a consequence in the past or condition for the future. 

Nuance Note: のなら is stronger and enforces a confirmation of the content of the condition.

Usage Note: なら can also be used as a conjunction at the front of a sentence in broken down speech for それなら.

Practice (2): Translate the following.  

1.　 韓国 かんこく に 行 くなら（ば）、 飛行機 ひこうき の 方 がよいです。
2. みなが 行 くなら、 私 も 行 きます。
3.  電車 がないなら、 歩 くまでだ。
4. 大阪 おおさか に 行 くなら、 新幹線 しんかんせん がいいですよ。
5. その話なら 何度 なんど も聞いているよ。

1. Shows an unrealized event being hypothesized, not completely certain. It's often preceded by もし. In a temporal condition, the next action is to happen after the action with たら. So, something happens once certain conditions are met. 

21. 会議 かいぎ が終わったら、 電話 でんわ しますね。
      I'll call you once the meeting ends, OK?

22.  金持 かねも ちになったら、 城 しろ を 買 う！
      If I were rich, I'd so buy a castle!

23. もし 雨 ( ) が 降 ( ) らなかったら、 行 ( ) きましょう。
       If it doesn't rain, let's go.

24. 雨 ( ) が（ 降 ( ) り）やんだら、どこかに 行 ( ) くと 決 ( ) めた。
      After it finished raining, we decided to go somewhere.

25. 日本 ( ) に 行 ( ) けたらいいなあ。
      It would be nice if I could go to Japan. 

26. もし 地球 ( ちきゅう ) に 引力 ( いんりょく ) がなかったら、 空中 ( くうちゅう ) に 浮 ( う ) いているでしょう。
      If there wasn't gravity on earth, you would probably be floating in the air.

27. 地震 じしん が 収 おさ まったら、 正 しい 情報 じょうほう を 聞 いてください。
      Once an earthquake subsides, get accurate information. 

2. When you do X, Y happens. The latter part is typically unexpected.

28. ドアを開けたら、 加藤 ( かとう ) さんが 立 ( ) っていました。 
      When I opened the door, Mr. Kato was standing there.

29. 本 ( ) を 読 ( ) んであげたら、 弟 ( ) が 喜 ( よろこ ) びました。
      When I read the book for my younger brother, he was very happy.

30. 休 ( ) んだら、 元気 ( ) になった。
      When I rested, I got better.

31. 銀行 ( ) に 行 ( ) ったら、 友人 ( ゆうじん ) に 会 ( ) いました。
      When I went to the bank, I saw a friend.

3. Shows an obvious conditional. This is a generic condition. This means that something is almost always followed by some situation. This "almost always" diction suggests that it is not as certain as と.

32. この 会社 ( かいしゃ ) の 社員 ( しゃいん ) だったら、あの 大学 ( だいがく ) で 割引 ( わりびき ) がもらえる。
      If you are an employee of this company, you can get a discount at that college.

33. 人 ( ) を 殺 ( ころ ) したら、 死刑 ( しけい ) になります。
      If you kill a person, you'll get the death penalty.

34. 風邪 かぜ を 引 いたら、くしゃみが 出 で ます。
      If we catch a cold, we sneeze.

4. （の）だったら emphasizes a topic because of the condition of someone else. 

35. やりたくないんだったらやめてくれ。（Vulgar)
      If you don't want to do it, stop!

36. お 父 ( ) さんだったら 部屋 ( ) にいるよ。
      If you're talking about dad, he's in the room.

たら may be たらば in formal situations. In hypothetical situations, もし(も) is almost always added. Unlike と or なら, たら may be in a hypothetical yet unrealistic gesture. It's also the most common conditional because of its wide usage. However, it's often avoided in formal writing.

      We saw that in the first usage of たら, もし was always present. もし is related to hypothetical events. If you looked in a Japanese dictionary, you would find a definition similar to the following.

37. ある 事態 ( じたい ) を 仮定 ( かてい ) して 述 ( の ) べることを 表 ( あらわ ) す。
      It shows an event of hypothesizing and stating a certain condition. 

     When a clause with たら is used to show a hypothetical condition--where it may or may not happen--it is usually used with もし. もし is also used with counter-factual hypothetical statements where the event is extremely unrealistic. Even here, もし simply adds more uncertainty.

38. 毎日すし が 食 ( ) べられたら、 私 ( ) は 幸 ( ) せでしょう。
      If I could eat sushi every day, I would be very happy.

39. もし 雨 ( ) が 降 ( ) れば 私 ( ) は 家 ( ) にいます。
      If it rains tomorrow, I will stay at home.

40. もし 私 ( ) があなただったらすこし 待 ( ) つでしょう。
      If I were you, I'd wait a while.　

41. もし 君 ( ) が 僕 ( ) の 立場 ( たちば ) だったら、どうしますか？
      Suppose you were in my place, what would you do?

ば creates the provisional conditional form with the  已然形 いぜんけい . Never confuse this with the potential forms of verbs. There is a difference between 買 えば and 買 えれば. The first is ば with the basic form of the verb, and the second is ば with the potential form of the verb. The chart below shows how to conjugate with the 已然形 . You are now responsible to know what this base is. 

　　ば shows that the previous stated condition's establishment is the condition for the latter stated condition to occur. The subjects of both clauses should not show volition. So, although the subject may be the same in both clauses, the resultant outcome should be natural in such instance. 

This particle is perfect for showing desired result, so it would sound unnatural if the latter clause had some negative/undesired result specifically stated. This, then, does not mean "negative words" used in making suggestions/commands are then ungrammatical because you are soliciting a desired outcome.  

ば may also show the cue for a latter stated recognition or judgment. 

42. ほかに 意見 ( ) がなければ、これで 終 ( ) わりましょう。
      If you don't have any other opinions, let's end here.

43. まあ、 無理 ( むり ) ｛なら・であれば｝、 月曜日 ( ) までに 出 ( ) してください。 
       Well, if it's impossibility, turn it in by Monday.  

Like たら, it can show generic, temporal, and hypothetical conditions, but it's more forceful and places emphasis on the future aspect. The main clause shouldn't suggest with an action in the following manner. 

44. 京都へ来たら、ぜひ連絡してください。〇京都へ来れば、ぜひ連絡してください。X
      Once you come to Kyoto, please contact me.　　　

　　 The suggestion is to do something once the condition of reaching Kyoto is met. Both conditionals can be followed by expressions reflecting the will of the speaker, but phrases with ば tend to be stronger and directed more specifically on something. 

45. 押 お せば、 開 ひら きます。
      It will open once you push it.

46. 冬 ( ) になれば、 雪 ( ) が 降 ( ) る。
       When it becomes winter, snow will fall.

Grammar Note: たら has a sequence requirement, but this "once" nuance of ば focuses on the conditional as the instigator for the latter to occur. So, it is stronger.  

47. 都合 がよければ、 一緒 いっしょ に 大阪 に 行 きませんか。
      How about going to Osaka together if it's convenient with you?

48. 自信 じしん があれば 半 なか ば 成功 せいこう したも 同然 どうぜん だ。(Proverb)
      Confidence is half the battle.

49. 見上 げれば、 星 ほし が 宙 ちゅう をうねり、 闇 やみ が 覆 おお っている。
      If you look up, the stars are projected in the air, and the dark is spreading.

50. あれだけ 勉強 ( ) すれば、 合格 ( ごうかく ) するのも 当然 ( とうぜん ) です。
      If you'll study to that extent, passing is only natural.

51. 酒 ( ) も 飲 ( ) めば、タバコも 吸 ( ) う。
      If you drink sake, you also smoke.

52. 歌手 かしゅ になりたいのであれば、 楽器 がっき の 弾 ひ き 方 かた も 習 なら った 方 ほう がよいのです。
If it is the case that you wish to become a singer, it is best that you also learn how to play an instrument. 

Pronunciation Note: Do not pronounce 楽器 as がき because 餓鬼 　＝　brat. So, be careful. 

Practice (3): Translate the following.

1.  高 ければ、 買 わない 方 がいいですよ。
2. 僕の家に来ればどう？
3. 犬と話せれば、楽しいでしょう。
4. 勉強すれば、Aがもらえますよ。
5. 安ければ、買った方がいいと思います。

Proverb Note:  一犬虚 いっけんきょ に 吠 ほ ゆれば 万犬実 ばんけんじつ を 云 い う。This proverb means that "if a single dog barks a lie, ten thousand dogs will then speak it as the truth". This is meant to show that once a rumor spreads, it will eventually be taken as the truth. 吠ゆれば is the Classical Japanese form 吠えれば, and in proverbs such as this, old forms of grammar are common. 

Slang Note: ～ば may be turned into ～や in slang. Generally, this is seen when れ precedes ば, and then the combination becomes りゃ. For instance, どうすりゃいいの? However, you can still say things like どう言いやいいんだよ. Of course, this would be very casual and slang and is rather 乱暴.  

Practice (1):

1. 氷を 温 あたた めると、 溶 と ける。
2. When I entered the room, I opened the curtains.
3. I went to Kyoto with my boyfriend.
4. When I opened the door, there was a dog. When I opened the window, there was a bird. And, when I opened the trash can, there was a rat.

Practice (2):

1. If you are going to Korea, it is best to go by plane.
2. If everyone's going, I'll go too.
3. If there's not a train, you just got to walk.
4. If you are going to Osaka, the bullet train is good.
5. If it's that you're talking about, I've heard it numerous times.

Practice (3):

1. It's best not to buy it if it's expensive.
2. How about coming to my house?
3. It would probably be fun if you could take to dogs.
4. You'll be able to receive an A if you study.
5. If it’s cheap, I think that it’s best to buy it. 

Now that you have learned about the conditional particles, it's time for you to learn about all the different phrases you can make with them. Now, this lesson won't be totally exhaustive in its coverage on these phrases. So, you will still learn more in the future. 

  AがAならBもBだ

 "AがAならBもBだ" compares two things that aren't good. Similarly, "AもAならBもBだ" gives a meaning of "both being not normal".

1. 夫 おっと も 教師 きょうし なら 妻 つま も 教師 きょうし だ　＝　夫も妻も 共 とも に教師だ
The husband and the wife are both teachers.

2. 犬も犬なら猫も猫だ。
    If dogs are dogs, then cats are also cats.

3. 親も親なら、子も子だ。
    If parents are parents, then kids are also kids.

～としたら

～としたら is like "if it happens that". Notice that it can follow verbs in the non-past or past tense, but this decision has to be solely made on the circumstances.

4. もしたくさんの 遺産 ( いさん ) があったとしたらどのように使うのですか？
    Say if it so happened that you had a lot of inheritance, how would you use it?

5. 仮に、お金が一億円あるとしたら、何に使いますか。
    If you were to have 100 million yen for instance, what would you use it for?

 ～たらいい? ～たらどう?

There are many ways to make suggestions, some of which are made with たら. These phrases may show noninterference, light commands, and suggestions--"how about?". In plain speech it's more common to drop か in a question in order to not sound curt/rude. 

6. 他 た の人と話したらどうですか。
    How about talking to other people?

7. もし来なかったらどうしよう？ 
    What shall we do if he doesn't come?

8. どうやって 償 ( つぐな ) いをしたらいいのでしょうか。
    How can I make it up to you?

9. 先生もお使いになってみたらいかがですか。(Very polite/formal)
    Sensei, how about you try using this? 

10. どうしたらいいですか。 
      What shall/should I do?

11. どうしたらいいと思いますか。
      What do you think I should do? 

12. 何で行ったらどうですか。
      How do I get there? 

Grammar Note: This 何で is read as なにで, and it refers to the means by which you are going. As this is also expressed by the word "how" do not be confused. 

13. どこでチケットを買ったらいいですか。 
      Where should I buy a ticket? 

In casual speech, the final part after the conditional is often dropped. When this is done, the sentence ends with a rising intonation.

14. 先生に聞いてみたら?
      How about you ask the teacher? 

              ～てはどう and its variants can also be used to mean "how about (you)?". 

15. この本を読んでみてはどうですか。
      How about you read this book.

16. この薬を飲んでみてはいかがでしょう。 
      Why don't you take this medicine? 

 Conditional...だけ

              With a conditional, だけ can express "the more, the...". Some patterns include したら…しただけ, …しただけ, …したらそれだけ, and ～ば…だけ". At this point, just recognize what role だけ plays.

17. 希望 きぼう した 会社 かいしゃ に 就職 しゅうしょく したら就職したぶん（だけ） 気苦労 きぐろう も 増 ふ えるでしょう。
      Just by getting a job at your dream company, anxiety will also surely increase.

Word Note: 希望する and  望 ( のぞ ) む both mean "to hope", but they're not used like the English word. They are mainly literary, but when spoken they show sincere desire, beseeching, etc.　希望する is more like "to desire". If wanted to say, "I hope it's cold tomorrow", you'd say something like 明日寒 ( あすさむ ) いといいね. In short, these words are too serious to be used in more practical settings.

18. （ 時間 ( じかん ) が） 十分 ( じゅっぷん ) （だけ）あれば、 仕上 ( しあ ) げられるけど、もう 零時 ( れいじ ) になったから 床 ( とこ ) に 就 ( つ ) いた方がいいです。
If I had ten minutes, I would be able to finish it. But, because it's already midnight, it's best to go to bed.

 でもしたら・でもしようものなら

        でもしたら or でもしようものなら--"(even) if you were". This pattern attaches to the 連用形 of a verb.

19. 遅 おく れでもしたら 大変 たいへん ですよ。
      It would be awful even if you were just late. 

20. でも 突 ( つ ) っ 切 ( き ) る時に 万 ( まん ) が 一 ( いち ) 子供を 轢 ( ひ ) きでもしたら大変である。
      But, if by chance when I break across, it would be awful if I were to run over a kid. 
From 雨天炎天―ギリシャ・トルコ辺境紀行 by 村上春樹. 

 Conditional...（た）で

              There are three conditional patterns in which で acts as a conjunctive particle. Unlike the case particle, this classification means that it is to follow something that acts as a clause. This is completely different than just following a noun phrase.

These phrases below that utilize this odd で show an effect on something due to a conditional. So, there is some causality implied. So, if something happens, there is a certain effect. This use of で can surface as any of the following patterns. The table is followed by example sentences. 

Say we note this pattern as A + Conditional +A + B. While you adequately assess the establishment of A, you lead into a situation B that is not foreseen.  

21. 休んだら休んだで、たくさんやることがある。
      From having taken a break, I have a lot of stuff to do.

22. 一段落したらしたで、次の難問が待っている。 
      Just from following down one step, the next difficult problem awaits.

23. お金というものはあったらあったで無駄に使ってしまうものだ。
      Money is something that when you have it, you end up wasting it.  

24. 部屋が広ければ広いで掃除機なんか結構時間がかかります。
      The bigger the room gets, the more time it takes to do stuff like vacuuming.   

In all four of these examples, because of the event transpiring before で, there is an effect from it that leads to the result stated after で. This pattern tends to get used a lot more when the past tense precedes で.

Because this pattern doesn't get used extremely frequently, judgments may vary on exact instances of it. This is because it should be used within the explanation provided above. If you are told that you are using it incorrectly, you should use ほど instead of で. This does not mean で → ほど in most cases. Nor does this mean that these different patterns are the same by any means.  It's just that if you use this pattern incorrectly, it more than likely should be ほど.

～ばいい 

～ばいい is like "it would be good". In the past tense, ～ばよかった, the perspective changes to first person to show a feeling of regret or criticism at something not happening. In question form it is essentially the same thing as ～たらいいですか。

25. あの家を買えばいいんです。 
      It would be good for you to buy that house.

26. 私がすればよかったんですが。
      It would have been good if I had done it.

27. 時間があればよかった。
      It would have been nice if there were time. 

28. もっと早く来ればよかった。
      It would have been nice if you had come earlier.

～｛から・と・に｝すれば 

～からすれば, ～とすれば, and ～にすれば show a particular position. There isn't really any significant differences between them, although judging from the translations below, you can get a sense of slight nuance differences based on the particle used. 

29. 彼にすれば 悪意 ( あくい ) から出た 行為 ( こうい ) だったのでしょう。
      Considering it's him, the action was probably out of malice thought.

30. 彼女の顔つきからすれば、本当に美しいですよね。
      Starting with her looks, she's really pretty, isn't she! 

 AもすればBもする

"AもすればBもする" aligns similar conditional situations.

31. 雨も降れば風も吹く。
      The rain falls, and the wind blows.

32. 男もいれば、女もいる。
      There are men, and there are also women.

In this lesson, we will learn about the phrases for “must not”. Now, contrary to what many textbooks may say, there are actually differences among the several options that you as the listener must understand. Before we study “must” phrases, it’s important to learn about the “must not” phrases because there are fewer of them and less information overall to go through. So, let’s begin. 

Conjugations

• 動詞： 連用形 ＋ ては＋ならない・いけない・だめだ
• 形容詞： 連用形（く）　＋　ては＋ならない・いけない・だめだ
• 名詞・形容動詞： 連用形（で）　＋　は＋いけない・だめだ/ではあっては＋ならない・いけない

 使い分け

～てはならない: A prohibitory command accompanied with a sense of societal duty. This is the only pattern appropriate for law documents or judicial verdicts. It is obligatory in the written language in showing commands that regard society. 

～てはいけない: A prohibitory command accompanied with a sense of personal duty. ～てはならない would be more stern than ～てはいけない in this situation in the written language.  

～てはだめだ: A prohibitory command projecting warning, chastise, or criticism to the listener. It may not always be a literal command. It may simply suggest prohibition or avoidance of an action. It may also be used to encourage someone like in “don’t give up”: 諦めてはだめだ！This pattern is used primarily in the spoken language. 

Spelling Note: These phrases are typically spelled in ひらがな. However, だめ is frequently spelled in 漢字 as 駄目.

In the spoken language, there is a lot of interchangeability between ～てはいけない and ～てはだめだ, and in the written language, there is a lot of interchangeability between ～てはならない and ～てはいけない.

1. 日本は、 憲法 ( けんぽう ) に 照 ( て ) らして、いかなる 武器 ( ぶき ) も保持してはならない。(Formal document; 書き言葉)
 　 Japan must not maintain any arms in light of the constitution. 

2a. 町民 ( ちょうみん ) 等 ( とう ) は、いかなる 理由 ( りゆう ) にせよ、 廃棄物 ( はいきぶつ ) を 不法 ( ふほう ) 投棄 ( とうき ) してはならない。 (法律; 書き言葉)
2b. 市民は、いかなる理由であっても、廃棄物を不法投棄してはならない。(書き言葉)
 　   Townspeople must by no reason unlawfully dump waste matter. 

3. この薬は 副作用 ( ふくさよう ) があり、 血糖値 ( けっとうち ) の上昇を引き起こす 可能性 ( かのうせい ) があるので、2日 以上 ( いじょう ) 、 連続 ( れんぞく ) して 服用 ( ふくよう ) しては｛ならない・いけない｝。(書き言葉)
There are side effects to this drug with one being a possible rise in blood sugar. So, you mustn't use it more than two days consecutively. 

 The Person Commanding

If we think of who makes the command, the person is of a higher status than the listener. It does not necessarily have to be the speaker who is the commander. The commander is likely as such based on what exactly you use.

Speech Style Note: If a man is to use the non-敬語 phrases ～てはいけない and ～てはだめだ and they are not a person of ultimate authority, one can imagine the speaker becoming in an emotional state in which he just ignores the character of the addressee.

4. お母さん、そんなに働いちゃだめよ。体を壊しちゃうわ。（女性語）
    Mom, don't work so hard like that. You'll get sick. 

5. そのぬいぐるみ、まだ持ってたの？ルパートは危ないから、持ってちゃだめだよ。捨てなさい。(Family Guy reference)
You still have that stuffed animal？ I told you that Rupert was dangerous, so you can't keep him. Throw him away. 

 Gender Trend?

It is not that ～てはいけません and ～てはだめです are exclusively used by women, but women are often expected to be more polite. So, in this sense, regardless of whether one is male or female, the use of these polite forms emphasizes ones class more than actually showing respect to the addressee. This is expected of any well-educated 成人.

6a. 今日は、自分の車で帰るつもりでしょう？お酒を飲んでは｛いけません・だめです｝よ。（ 敬意 けいい ）
6b. 今日は、車で帰る？じゃ、飲んじゃ｛いけません・だめです｝よ。（ 品格 ひんかく 保持 ほじ ）

6a. Aren't you going home in your own car today? You mustn't drink.
6b. You're going home by car today? Well, you mustn't drink.      

Grammar Note: Not using polite forms of conjunctive phrases makes it clear whether someone is showing 敬意 (respect) or 品格保持 (societal standing). This would show the latter.

 More on ～てはならない

Using ～てはならない in things based on personal experience and knowledge in spoken, colloquial contexts is unnatural except in dramas and movies. 

7. 敵に後ろを見せるのかい。そりゃならぬ。武士として、あるまじきことじゃ。  (Samurai talk)
　　 Show our rear to the enemy? That mustn't happen. That is unworthy of a warrior. 

The Difference between ～てはいけない & ～てはだめだ

When ～てはいけない is used, there is a rule that needs to be protected/followed, and if one breaks the rule, punishment follows. When ～てはだめだ is used, it is most often the case that there is no penalty or responsibility implied for the addressee. Even if there isn’t a rule to follow, if you are scolded or are to run into an unpleasant circumstance, it becomes understood to the speaker and listener that there is an unwritten rule to abide by.

8. ご飯を食べたら、すぐにお風呂！ それまでゲームをやっては｛いけません・だめです｝よ。
　　 Bath right after supper! Until then, you must not play video games. 

9. こんなに雨が降ってきては｛だめだ 〇・いけない X｝、計画は中止だ。
　  This can't do with all rain falling like this; plans are cancelled. 

It’s impossible for man to actually command the weather. So, in this sentence, using ～てはいけない is just wrong. 

Summary Chart

 ～といけない・～とだめだ

First, before we look at how these phrases differ with the ones above, consider the conjugation rules below.  

• 動詞：終止形＋と｛いけない・だめだ｝
• 形容詞・形容動詞：終止形＋｛といけない・だめだ｝
• 名詞：である・だ＋（といけない・だめだ）

As you can see, there is no ～とならない. You can't use ～といけないand ～とだめだ to make sentences that urge someone. They may be used in declarative and affirmation sentences, but they can't be interpreted as prohibitory commands.

と marks a general condition, and it can only be used with confidence based on personal experience and or knowledge. So, even if you were to tell a listener a message involving having been prohibited, the use of these options would still be unnatural. As ～てはならない exists as an absolute prohibitory imperative phrase, there’s no way a declarative ～とならない could exist.

10.  心臓 しんぞう が悪いから、歩くのはいいが、走ると｛いけない・だめな｝のだ。   (書き言葉)
      My heart is not good, so it's OK for me to walk, but I can't run. 

More Examples

11. 子供はお酒を飲んではいけない。 
      Children must not drink sake.

12. 家 の中では走ってはいけませんよ。
      You must not run in the middle of the house!

13. 遅 おく れちゃだめ（だよ）。
　　 You can't be late!

     This lesson will now look at the "must" phrases. There will be more variation in forms to be aware of in this section, and the grammar complications will be harder than with the "must not" forms, but don't worry.

The basic patterns are ～なければならない, ～なければいけない, ～なくてはならない, and ～なくてはいけない. Just as with must not phrases, ～ては contracts to ちゃ in colloquial speech. Other contractions include ～なければ　→ なけりゃ and ～なくてはいけない shortened to just ～なくちゃ.

Chart Note: Example verbs may not be perfect for demonstrating the actual sensitive nuances of the options to be discussed in this lesson.

 Colloquial Variants

Variant Note: ～なきゃ and ～なくちゃ are often used without anything after them.  

～なくてはならない VS ～なければならない 

In the written language, these two "must" phrases are both most likely to be used. This is due to the use of ならない. They're both used not to describe personal matters, but to describe societal duties in regards to law and societal norms. ～なければならない is used for affirmative statements. When the sense of duty you're wishing to command somewhat is directed towards individual responsibility rather than society or some institution as a whole, ～なくてはならない is acceptable.

1. 国家は 直接 ちょくせつ 、国民すべてに、 最低 さいてい 限度 げんど の生活を 保障 ほしょう しなければならない。
    The nation must directly ensure a bare minimal lifestyle to all citizens.  

2.  従業員 ( じゅうぎょういん ) は毎日、 出退勤 ( しゅったいきん ) 時 ( じ ) を、タイムレコーダーに 記録 ( きろく ) し｛なければならない・なくてはならない｝。
 　 Employees must record in the time recorder one's leave time. 

Interchangeability in the Spoken Language 

However, unlike straight-up prohibition, we find all four options ～なければならない・～なければいけない・～なくてはならない・～なくてはいけない acceptable in the spoken language. This is a perfect opportunity to get familiar with casual speech. 

3. 国は、国民すべてに、最低限度の生活を保障し｛なければならない・なくてはならない・なければいけない・なくてはいけない｝よ。
　  The country must provide some minimal lifestyle to all its citizens. 

4. 早く帰って、妹の世話をし｛なきゃなんない・なくちゃなんない・なきゃいけない・なくちゃいけない｝よ。
　  I have to go home and take care of my little sister. 

5. 本を 返 かえ さなくちゃ。(Casual)
    I have to return the book.

6. てめーは死ななきゃ。(Masculine; vulgar)
    You have to die.

 使い分け

In everyday conversation, these four patterns have great interchangeability. If we are to talk about the extremities of the usages of ～なくてはならない and ～なければならない, the difference would be this.

～なくてはいけない：Duty or command to the addressee (which may be oneself or another party) regarding common sense, morality, societal common wisdom, or current conditions. The speaker is directing the addressee. When used towards oneself, you treat yourself as the 'addressee'. If referring to oneself, a first pronoun is usually needed to tell that you mean this. 

～なければならない：A duty of the speaker in regards to common sense, morality, and or societal common wisdom. It will show responsibility burdened upon the speaker. The person bearing the responsibility is not excluding to the speaker, but it is best described as being the subject. This may be be used in the spoken language as well, and this is also when you may see the polite form ～なければなりません.

When you use ～なければ, you imply an obvious duty with no penalty involved for not complying. ～なくては is used when there is a penalty for not complying. いけない is in regards to the listener or one’s conscious and ならない is used in regards to the speaker. So, when we say things interchangeable, we’re saying that if we change one for the other, the new nuance still makes sense. It is not the case that the meaning stays completely the same.

7. 急がなければいけない。
    You must hurry.

8. 子供達 こどもたち は早く 寝 ね なくてはいけない。
    Children must go to bed early.

9. あまりの 無駄 むだ は 避 さ けなければならない。 
    We must avoid an excess of waste. 

10. 弟と遊ばなくてはいけないから。
      It's because I have to play with my little brother.

11. 毎日水を飲まなければなりません。
      You have to drink water every day.  (General you, which includes oneself)

12. 私はボートに乗らなくてはいけないんです。
      I have to catch the boat.

13. 新刊を買わなくてはいけません。
      You have buy the new book.

Word Note: ｛その・あの｝新しい本 may be more natural in many contexts than 新刊, which can also be interpreted as "new publication". Nevertheless, 新刊 is still a commonly used word. 

～ないといけない & ～ないとだめだ

As you would imagine, the rules governing these phrases is just like when used for must not. ～ないとならない doesn’t exist. And, these two phrases are quite removed semantically from the others. You can't tell whether the speaker’s duty or addressee’s duty is being referred to without relying on context, so it is typically only used in the spoken language or writing which can reflect back on the conditions in a dialogue. As this phrase particularly blurs the existence of penalty, it has a lighter feeling and is used a lot in the spoken language because of this.

Because the particle と is used, though, your statement should be one based on experience or knowledge of some sort. Though the situation is somewhat more ambiguous than with must not phrases, you can still see how ～ないといけない refers to rule-like behavior and ～ないとだめだ may hint at the existence of a consequence for not following through.

15. 早く帰って、妹の 世話 せわ をしないとだめなの。（女性語）
　　 I gotta go home quick and take care of my little sister. 

16. 明日、試験だから、早く起きないといけないんだよ。
　  I have to wake up early tomorrow 'cause I have an exam.

17. 死活問題 しかつもんだい だから、 対策 たいさく を 講 こう じないといけないのだ。
      It's a matter of life or death, so I/you need to take measures.

18. 明日 あす までに 報告書 ほうこくしょ を書かないとだめだよ。(Casual yet serious) 
      I/You have to write a report by tomorrow!

Casual Speech Note: In colloquial speech, you can simply use ～ないと. 

19. もう行かないと。(Casual)
      I've got to go.

Older Variants

There are many other older and dialectical variations of what we have just learned. As for old phrases, we have ～ねば｛ならない・ならぬ｝，and ～なければならぬ which are old-fashioned but not so archaic that they don’t frequently show up in the written language. You may also see the very stiff ～なるまい. ～ねばならない in particular is extremely common in literature.

20. これからは、自分たちのことは自分たちで決めるんだと思った。なぜなら三人だけで生きていかねばならないからだ。 
I felt that from now on that we would have decide on our own accord concerning ourselves. That is because we must live on just the three of us. 

21. 何としても 合格 ( ごうかく ) せんばならんねな。(Old-fashioned; dialectical)
      You have to pass no matter what. 
From  蒼氓 ( そうぼう )  by  石川達三 ( いしかわたつぞう ) .

Base Note: The old みぜんけい of する, せ-, must be used with ～ぬ. 

Variant Note: There are several important notes about the above sentence. The ～ね in せねば is contracted to ～ん and ～ない in ならない becomes → ～んね, which would be realized today in Modern Japanese as the casual ～んねー such as in 分かんねー・分かんない.  

 Important Dialectical Variants

       Sometimes "must" is expressed completely differently in other dialects. The most common dialect pattern is " 未然形 ( みぜんけい )  ＋なあかんで". You can also see ～ねば contracted to ～にゃ in Western Japanese Dialects. 

いけない is very sensitive in respect to dialect. Below is a chart of the most common variations you may encounter.  

23. 歌 ( ) わなくてはいけん。
       I have to sing.

More Notes:

1. せにゃならん　＝　しなければならない

2. せないかん　＝　しなければならない

3. Note 2 is also a Western Japanese dialect example. Here, we see a rare example of ～ない following the old 未然形 of the verb する, せ-, and あかん contracted as かん.

To be or not to be, or in this case, to choose いかない or いけない is a not so simple choice for the Japanese learner to make at times. They both come from the verb 行く, which has the basic meaning of “to go.” Unsurprisingly, the basic meanings of 行かない and 行けない are “to not go” and “cannot go” respectively.

1. 何 ( なに ) もかもうまくいかないときは、 自分 ( じぶん ) を 変 ( か ) える、いいチャンスではないでしょうか。
Isn’t when everything goes wrong a great chance to change oneself?

2. でも、そうかといって 俺 ( おれ ) が 投票 ( とうひょう ) （をし）に 行 ( い ) っても 行 ( い ) かなくても 別 ( べつ ) に 一票 ( いっぴょう ) の 重 ( おも ) みを 感 ( かん ) じない。
But even so, whether I go vote or not, I don’t particularly feel the weight of one vote.

3. 読 ( よ ) んでもらえないだけならまだしも、 本当 ( ほんとう ) に 注目 ( ちゅうもく ) してほしいところに 注意 ( ちゅうい ) が 行 ( い ) かないってことが 問題 ( もんだい ) なんですよ。
If it were just not being able to have him read that would be one thing, but the problem is that his attention doesn’t go to the areas that I really want paid attention to. 

4. トイレに 行 ( い ) けないときに 限 ( かぎ ) って 腹痛 ( ふくつう ) が 起 ( お ) こるのはなぜでしょうか。
Why is it that occurrences of abdominal pain is limited to when I can't go to the bathroom?

5. 空港 ( くうこう ) に 見送 ( みおく ) りに 行 ( い ) けなくてごめんね。
I’m sorry for not being able to see you off at the airport.

Orthography Note: The uses of these two phrases that are to be discussed are typically written in Hiragana.

Translated as “there’s no way…can…” or “…cannot (afford to) …” this expression is used to state that an action is not reasonable/proper for obvious reasons and cannot be done as a result.

6. 日本語 ( にほんご ) の 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) では 英語 ( えいご ) を 話 ( はな ) すわけにはいきません。
You cannot speak English in Japanese class.

7. アメリカ 史 ( し ) の授業ではガムを 噛 ( か ) むわけにはいきません。
You cannot chew gum in American history.

8. 授業 ( じゅぎょう ) では 寝 ( ね ) るわけにはいきません。
You cannot afford to sleep in class. 

9. 忙 ( いそが ) しくても 寝 ( ね ) ないわけにはいかないよ。
Even if you're busy, you can't afford to not sleep.   

10.  

A:  漢字 ( かんじ ) は 勉強 ( べんきょう ) するのに 時間 ( じかん ) がかかりますねえ。
B:  ええ、でも 覚 おぼ えないわけにはいかないしねえ。
A: It must take a lot of time to study Kanji.
B: Yeah, but I can't afford not to remember them.  

11. 「この 頃 ( ごろ ) サークル 活動 ( かつどう ) で 忙 ( いそが ) しいようだね」「うん、でも、 忙 ( いそが ) しいといって 宿題 ( しゅくだい ) をしないわけにはいかないしね」
“You seem pretty busy these days with club activities, don't you?” “Yeah but, just because I’m busy with them, I can't afford not to do my homework.” 

12. 「 漢字 ( かんじ ) は 難 ( むずか ) しいねえ」「うん、でもそうかと 言 ( い ) って 漢字 ( かんじ ) で 書 ( か ) かないわけにはいかないしねえ」
"Kanji are difficult, aren't they?” “Yeah, but even so, I can't afford not to write with them, you know…”

13. 「 毎日忙 ( まいにちいそが ) しくて 寝 ( ね ) る 時間 ( じかん ) もない」「でもそうかといって 全然寝 ( ぜんぜんね ) ないわけにはいかないでしょ」
"I'm so busy every day that there's no time to sleep." “Yeah, but even so, there’s no way you can just not sleep at all.”

The not so literal usages of いけない revolve around being a euphemism of 悪い.

14. 彼 ( かれ ) は 事故 ( じこ ) に 遭 ( あ ) ったって？それはいけない、あいつは 大丈夫 ( だいじょうぶ ) なの？
He got in an accident? That’s not good; is he alright?

15. 最近 ( さいきん ) 、 日本酒 ( にほんしゅ ) を 飲 ( の ) めるようになったんですが、 熱燗 ( あつかん ) はあまりいけない 口 ( くち ) なんですね。
Recently, I’ve become able to drink sake, but I can't really handle hot sake.

16. 異物混入 ( いぶつこんにゅう ) なんか 全部報道 ( ぜんぶほうどう ) していたら、どこの 店 ( みせ ) もいけなくなるわ。
If every single instance of contamination were reported (in the media), all stores would go out.

17. 馬鹿 ( ばか ) な 美容師 ( びようし ) だなあ、この 店 ( みせ ) もいけなくなるだろう。
What a stupid stylist…well that shop will probably go under.

18. 飲 ( の ) みすぎは 体 ( からだ ) にいけない。
 Drinking too much is not good for the body.

 ていけない

The phrase ていけない is used to show that something is “undesirable/unpleasant.”

19. 口 ( くち ) の 中 ( なか ) が 塩辛 ( しおから ) くていけないので、 水 ( みず ) を 飲 ( の ) んだ。
I drank water since having the inside of my mouth being salty would be unpleasant.

20. あのくらいの 年齢 ( ねんれい ) の 女性 ( じょせい ) は 本当 ( ほんとう ) にお 喋 ( しゃべ ) りでいけないっすね。
Women at that age are chatterboxes, which is really unpleasant, you know. 

21. 冬 ( ふゆ ) は 寒 ( さむ ) くていけないね。
Winter is cold and unpleasant, you know.

22. 君 ( きみ ) がいなきゃ 生 ( い ) きていけない。
I can't live without you.

23. 最近何 ( さいきんなに ) かとやりたいことが 多 ( おお ) いせいか、どうにも 気 ( き ) が 散 ( ち ) っていけない 気 ( き ) がする。
Recently one way or another, perhaps from having a lot of stuff I want to do, I feel like getting distracted by no means would be good.

てはいけない 

The phrase てはいけない is used to show that some state/action is not permissible/acceptable. It is typically translated as “must/may not.”  

24. 芝生 ( しばふ ) に 入 ( はい ) ってはいけません。
You must not get on the lawn.

25. 教室 ( きょうしつ ) の 中 ( なか ) でタバコを 吸 ( す ) ってはいけません。
You must not smoke inside the classroom.

26. 水 ( みず ) と 一緒 ( いっしょ ) に 飲 ( の ) んではいけません。
You must not take (the medicine) with water.

27. 猫 ( ねこ ) はネギを 食 ( た ) べてはいけません。
Cats must not eat scallions.

28. 外 ( そと ) で 遊 ( あそ ) んじゃいけないぞ。（Masculine)
You mustn't play outside.  

To ikenai/Tara ikenai と・たらいけない 

The phrase といけない is used to show that if said state comes to be, the speaker and or persons involved will be troubled. たらいけない is also possible, and as expected, it simply shows that a certain state/action would not be pleasant if it happens/is done.

29. 遅刻 ( ちこく ) するといけない ので、 何 ( なに ) より 時間厳守 ( じかんげんしゅ ) です。
Being late is bad, and so strict observance of time is above all.

30. 野菜 ( やさい ) が 腐 ( くさ ) るといけないから、 一旦家 ( いったんいえ ) に 帰 ( かえ ) って 冷蔵庫 ( れいぞうこ ) に 入 ( い ) れてから 出 ( で ) かけましょう。
It won’t be good if the vegetables go bad, so let’s return to the house for a moment, put them in the refrigerator, and then go out.

31. 毎日 ( まいにち ) 歯 ( は ) を 磨 ( みが ) かないといけない。
You must brush your teeth every day.
Literally: It’ll be bad if you don’t brush your teeth every day.

32. 賞味期限 ( しょうみきげん ) が 切 ( き ) れたら、 絶対 ( ぜったい ) に 食 ( た ) べたらいけないものといえば、 確 ( たし ) かに 卵 ( たまご ) や 鶏肉 ( とりにく ) とかですね。
In speaking of foods you should never eat once it’s passed its expiration date, there’s definitely eggs and poultry, right? 

33. 高血圧 ( こうけつあつ ) の 薬 ( くすり ) を 服用 ( ふくよう ) しているときに、グレープフルーツなど 食 ( た ) べたらいけないとよく 言 ( い ) われます。
When taking high blood pressure medicine, you’re often told not to eat things like grape fruit.

なくては・なければいけない

The phrase なくては・なければいけない is used to express some obligation/necessity to do something and it is typically translated as “must do…” As we have discussed once before when we discussed the “must/must not” phrases, double negatives like in this situation create positive expressions just as in English.

34.  足下 ( あしもと ) に 注意 ( ちゅうい ) しなくてはいけません。
You must watch your step.

35. 必要 ( ひつよう ) な 書類 ( しょるい ) を 提出 ( ていしゅつ ) しなくてはいけません。
You must submit necessary documents.

36. 有料道路 ( ゆうりょうどうろ ) を 通 ( とお ) らなければいけません。
We must go through a toll road.

37. そうしたチャンスは 稀 ( まれ ) なので、 見 ( み ) つけたときには 大 ( おお ) きく 投資 ( とうし ) しなくてはいけません。
Such chances are rare, and so when you find them, you need to invest a lot.

38. タオルも 大量 ( たいりょう ) に 購入 ( こうにゅう ) しなくてはいけません。
We have to purchase a large quantity of towels as well.

In addition to what we’ve seen, it’s important to note that いかない sometimes becomes いかん・いかぬ. The latter is more dialectical and or potentially old-fashioned, but you will still frequently encounter it in anime/manga among other places. Interestingly enough, despite having seen the different usages of いかない and いけない, いかん・いかぬ can be used in the same instances as both いかない and いけない.

39. 背中を見せるわけにかんぞ。
You cannot show your backside.

40. 通すわけにはいかぬぞ。
I cannot have you pass by.

41. やられたわ、もういかん。
Ugh, I’m done for.

42. 威張ってはいかん。
Don’t be stuck up.

43. 無理をしてはいかん。
You mustn’t push yourself.

Another noteworthy variant that can be used for any of the usages we’ve discussed thus far is あかん. This word is famously used in Kansai dialects and likely derives from the set phrase 埒が明かない, which means “to not get anywhere.” This word, not being in Standard Japanese, has a peculiar pitch accent in that all three syllables are high pitch. This word is so well-known and frequently used that there is no way that you can watch TV for more than an hour before it's used.

As far as grammar is concerned, many of the example sentences below will incorporate dialectical grammar that we have yet to ever cover, but contrary to the “must” patterns you’ve grown accustomed to, あかん follows verb by adding ない and dropping the /i/.

45. そないことしたら、あかん。
You shouldn’t do stuff like that.

Dialect Note: そんな becomes そない for most Kansai dialect speakers.

46. 子共は見たらあかん。
Kids don’t need to watch.

47. 一回ぐらいは見に来なあかんで。
You must come see at least once!

Dialect Note: The particle で the end of a sentence in Kansai dialect is similar in meaning to the particle よ.

48. あかんゆうたら、あかん。
If you say it’s no good, then it’s no good.

Dialect Note: 言ったら tends to be pronounced as yūtara in Kansai dialects. The verb 言う also tends to be used without the quotation particle と.

49. あかん子やなあ。
What a messed up kid.

Dialect Note: The copula verb is usually や in Kansai dialects.

50. 体重を減らすどころか増やさなあかんぐらいやで。
Rather than losing weight, you’ve gotten to the point you need to be gaining some.

51. あかん、雨降ってきた。
Crap, it’s started to rain.

52. こんだけ頼んでもあかん。
You can't entrust anything to (him) even if it's just something like this.

Dialect Note: これだけ becomes こんだけ in most Kansai dialects.

53. しっかり勉強せなあかんで。
I have to properly study.

54. こら、あかんわ。
This is no good.

Dialect Note: これは is frequently contracted to こら in most Kansai dialects.

55. 何で朝起きなあかんのか。
Why do I have to wake up in the morning?

      Having a large vocabulary is important. So, let's learn about places for directions!

Culture Note: A 旅館 is a traditional Japanese inn. They are wooden structures where guests may sleep, bathe, and eat traditional food. The flooring is laid out with 畳 たたみ . Bedding is 布団 ふとん , and you wear 浴衣 ゆかた to sleep.  

     Store in Japanese is 店 みせ and shop is 店舗 てんぽ . Store names often end in ～ 屋 や or ～ 店 てん . To address an employee of a store, address him or her as:

     At times ～ 員 いん is used to mean "employee". As it is more polite to address a person with his or her actual name, always look for a name tag if available. To say where one works, you use the phrase ～に 勤 つと めています.

Kinds of Stores

     To describe the location of an item or place, you must use the following expressions in Japanese. Unlike in English, the location phrase is after the noun.  

Word Note: You can add 斜 なな め at the front of a direction word to mean "diagonally". So, 斜め後ろ = diagonally behind. 向き means "facing". So, 南向き　＝ facing south. 

1. 銀行 ( ) はどこですか。
   Where is the bank?

2. 工場 こうじょう の 隣 にあります。
    It's right next to the factory.

3. 近 ( ) くに 電気屋 ( ) はありますか。
    Is there a electronics store nearby?

4. 辞書 じしょ は 机 の 上 にあります。
    The dictionary is on the desk.

5. 交番 ( ) の 前 ( ) に 学校 ( ) があります。
   There is a school in front of the police station. 

6. 美術館 ( ) の 横 ( ) に 病院 ( ) があります。
    There is a hospital to the side of the art museum.

7. 川（の）向うの家
    House on the other side of a river 

8. テーブルの 下 ( ) に 置 ( ) いてある。
    It's been placed under the desk. 

9. 変 ( ) な 線 ( せん ) が 学校 ( ) の 周 ( ) りにあります。
    There is an odd line around the school.

10. あそこの 本棚 ほんだな の下の 段 だん の左の 方 の小さい 字引 じびき の 隣 の本
The book over there next to the small dictionary on the left side of the bottom shelf on the bookshelf

11. 消防署 ( ) の 向 ( ) かいに 喫茶店 ( ) がある。
     There is a coffee shop across from the fire station.

12. 湖 みずうみ のわきで 散歩 さんぽ する。
      To take a walk on the side of the lake.

13. 彼は扉 ( ) の 向 ( ) こうへ 走 ( ) り 出 ( ) した。
     He began to race beyond the door.

14. この 部屋 ( ) の 前 ( ) には 縁側 ( えんがわ ) があって、その 前 ( ) は 庭 ( ) です。
     There is a veranda in front of the room, and in front of it is a garden.

15. この 先通行止 ( さきつうこうど ) め
     Road Blocked! 

16. 病院 ( ) ならすぐこの 先 ( ) です。
      If you're talking about the hospital, it's only a little way from here.

17. 駅の隣に大きなスーパーができました。
      A big supermarket has been made next to the train station.

Word Note: Remember that できる does not mean just "can" but can also mean "completed", "be made", "come into being", etc. 

     Below are some more additional vocabulary words for the examples that follow.  

Word Notes:

1. "By" in the sense of a mode of transportation is expressed by で. 

2. 側 = side. This can be used to refer to direction, side of something, a position, and a third person. For the first three, it can be read as かわ and even be seen as っかわ, but these are no longer standard readings. 

Directions Note: Directions like 南東 ( なんとう ) are reversed if they represent location. For example, southeast Asia is 東南 ( とうなん ) アジア．

     When asking for directions, there are many different ways you can formulate your question. You may opt to say you're lost, use a conditional, or use a certain level of politeness. Below are some of the many viable ways you would do this in Japanese. 

Word Note: You can use 何で instead of どうやって, but it isn't as common.  

   As politeness is often heightened when asking for directions, です is often changed to でしょう, its volitional form. People will typically respond to you by using the と conditional or ～てください.

18. どうやって 行 ( ) ったらいいでしょうか。
      How should I go there?

19. 2つ 目 の 交差点 を 渡 わた って、４０メートルぐらい 行 ってください。
      Cross the second intersection, and go about forty meters.

20. ４０メートルぐらい 行 ( ) くと、 左側 ( ) に 美術館 ( ) があります。
      If you go about forty meters, an art museum will be on your left.

21. その 美術館 ( ) の 角 ( ) を 左 ( ) に 曲 ( ) がって、しばらくまっすぐ 行 ( ) ってください。 
      Turn left at the corner of the art museum, and go straight for a while.

22. しばらくまっすぐ 行 ( ) くと、 郵便局 ( ) が 見 ( ) えますよ。
      If you go straight for a while, you will see a post office.

23. すみません、 私 ( ) もこの 辺 ( ) は 初 ( ) めてなんです。
      Sorry, I am new to this area.

24. 旅館 ( ) はどちらですか。
      Where is the ryokan?

Culture Note: In a 旅館 guests live on traditional tatami mats, take Japanese baths, and sleep on futon. You will most likely encounter Japanese style toilets, which look quite different. You have to squat on those.

25. 「 新幹線 ( ) に 乗 ( ) ったことがありますか。」「いいえ、 乗 ( ) ったことがありません。ところで、 東京駅 ( ) に 行 ( ) きたいですけど、どうやって 行 ( ) けばいいですか。」「3つ 目 ( ) の 交差点 ( ) を 右 ( ) に 曲 ( ) がってください。そうすると、 左 ( ) にありますよ。」「どうも。」
"Have you ridden the Shinkansen?" "No, I haven't". "By the way, I want to go to Tokyo Station, but how should I get there?" "Turn right on the third intersection. Then, it will be on your left". "Thanks". 

Culture Note: The 新幹線 ( ) , also known as the "bullet train", is one of the fastest passenger train services in the world. The 新幹線 opened in 九州 ( ) in 2011.

26. Xへはどうやって 行 ( ) きますか。
      How do I get to X?

27. 道 ( ) に 迷 ( ) いました。 銀行 ( ) を 探 ( さが ) しています。どうすれば 行 ( ) けますか。
      We're lost. We are trying to find a bank. How can we get there?

28. 「 遠 ( ) いですか」「いいえ5分くらいですよ」「ああ、そうですか。どうもありがとう」「どういたしまして」
“Is it far?” “No, it's about five minutes (from here)” “Ah, really. Thank you very much" "You're welcome”.

     "Then" is それから when you're explaining a progression of events, which is very important in giving directions and showing what happens right after in general, and そうすると is used when you do something, something else will happen.  

29. 2つ 目 ( ) の 交差点 ( ) を 左 ( ) に 曲 ( ) がってください。それから、まっすぐ 行 ( ) ってください。
      Please turn right on the second intersection. Then, please go straight.

30. この 道 ( ) をまっすぐ 行 ( ) ってください。そうすると、 右 ( ) に 病院 ( ) があります。 
      Please go straight on this street. Then, there will be a hospital to your right.

31. 薬 ( ) を 口 ( ) に 含 ( ふく ) んだ。それから、 水 ( ) で 流 ( なが ) し 込 ( こ ) んだ。
      I swallowed the medicine. Then, I washed it down with water.

32. 私 ( ) は 仕事 ( ) で 皿 ( さら ) を 洗 ( ) い、それから 乾 ( かわ ) かしました。
      I washed then dried the dishes at work.

Translate into Japanese (1-5)

1. I'm going to school tomorrow.

2. Where is the bank?

3. How should I go to the movie theatres?

4. The police station is behind the department store.

5. The neighborhood is to the left side of the highway.

6．How do you say then as in continuing your directions?

7. Explain そうすると.

8. Make a paragraph using 3 locations, and 2 specific indicators where they're are.

In Lesson 21, we learned how the particle が functions as an object marker for stative-transitive predicates. In this lesson, we will be learning how the particle に marks the agent of such predicates. 

Stative-transitive predicates are predicates that describe states/conditions but still have objects. The term itself presents a dynamic often missed when discussing transitivity and the concepts of “object” and “agent.”

The “agent” is either the cause or the initiator/doer of the sentence. In the context of this lesson, only the latter purpose will be relevant. A doer doesn’t always have to be actively doing anything.

For example, when an animal “needs” food, it has no control over its need for sustenance, but grammatically speaking, “food” is the object of the verb “to need.” In English, “animals need food” is easily explained as involving the transitive verb “to need” and its object “food,” but in Japanese, the primary equivalent of “to need” is 要る.

In Japanese, 要る is categorized as a 自動詞. This is because the object is marked with が. The concept of “object” becomes befuddled here, though, because が for all other kinds of predicates marks the subject.

1. お 金 ( かね ) が 要 ( い ) る。
i. Money is needed.
ii. I need money.

～が要る can be interpreted as being no different as is evident in translation i. Regardless of whether が is a subject or object marker here, お金 is not the agent. The understood “I” is. An agent/doer, though, need not be the subject of a sentence. The same can be said in English such as in passive expressions.

i. [The man] was chased by /the dog/ for hours.
ii. [The cat] was sold to /an elderly couple/.
iii. [The turtle] was released back into the ocean by /its rescuers/.

In these sentences, the nouns in [] are subjects and the nouns in // are agents. If we were to view the が with stative-transitive verbs as a subject marker, then the verbs would remarkably resemble passive verbs. After all, “needed” is the passive form of “to need,” and translation i. could easily be reworded as “Money is needed by me.”

The next question to ask is how the “agent” of these predicates is marked by に.

2. 君 ( きみ ) のいる 場所 ( ばしょ ) が 僕 ( ぼく ) にはわかるんだ。
i. I know where you are.
ii. Where you are is known by me.

In English, translation ii. is strange, but it’s exactly how Japanese expresses the emotion that can be felt in the English of translation i. The use of に exemplifies 僕 as the agent of knowledge concerning [君のいる場所]. The use of に, however, is not obligatory. As such, Ex. 2 can be reworded as follows:

3. 僕 ( ぼく ) は 君 ( きみ ) のいる 場所 ( ばしょ ) がわかる。
I know where you are.

Nuance-wise, Exs. 2 and 3 are almost the same. However, Ex. 2 is more emphatic. Grammatically speaking, the “agent” of both Ex. 2 and Ex. 3 is 僕. Just as we learned in Lesson 12, the particle は, when it is in fact the topic marker, is best understood as only marking the topic. As such, the deep structure (the form of a sentence that represents the interworking grammar in the mind) of Ex. 3 would still, in fact, look like: “boku-wa (ø-ni) kimi-no iru basho-ga wakaru.”

Motivation for why the particle に marks the agent of a sentence can be found in its basic use of denoting the place where something exists. Although long-winded and not representative of typical speech, one could say “it is within me where the knowledge of your location resides.” By extension of this, one can view the particle に as purposely marking the existence of an agent/doer as agent/doer = someone.  

We will now look at each verbal stative-transitive predicate that uses に to optionally mark the agent. This is a precursor to the next lesson in which we’ll finally learn about the passive form of verbs where に obligatorily marks the agent of a sentence. The verbs to be discussed in this lesson are as follows:

・分かる
・聞こえる
・見える
・ある
・いる
・出来る
・要る

Because you already have a basic understanding of what these verbs mean and how they’re used, each section will mainly focus on particle issues the agent-marker に presents in relation to other kinds of に and other particles.

Particle Note: The agent-marking function of に is most often accompanied with the contrast-marker は. When one feels it is necessary to explicitly state the agent, one is doing so because the natural happenstance of the verb is tied to the person being stated in contrast with others.

The verb わかる, as we have learned, refers to non-intentional, natural understanding. Its lack of volition is why Japanese categorizes it as a 自動詞.  The basic patterns a sentence can take with わかる are as follows:

①XはYがわかる
②Xに（は）Yがわかる
③XはYをわかる

In these patterns, “Y” is understood to be an “object.” Even if it can be conceptualized as a “subject” due to the use of が to mark it, “X” is what is conceptualized as the subject, and as such, the exhaustive-listing function of が can be used to mark X. This can be seen in Exs. 13 and 14 below. It is also impossible to forget how there are indeed cases when the object of わかる is indeed marked by を when the verb itself is no longer treated as being non-volitional.

Ultimately, however, it is Pattern 2 that is the basic pattern of わかる. Pattern 1 is simply a derivative with the marking of the agent treated as an unspoken, understood element.

Examples 

4. 分 ( わ ) かる 人 ( ひと ) には 分 ( わ ) かるけど、 分 ( わ ) からない 人 ( ひと ) には 全 ( まった ) く 分 ( わ ) からない 話 ( はなし ) をします。
I'm going to talk about something that will be understood by those who understand it but will be totally not understood by those who don’t understand it.

Particle Note: には is obligatory. Using は would disrupt the single-dependent clause modifying the noun 話. には is also obligatory due to the contrast grammar in the sentence. Lastly, using が instead of には would be too syntactically ambiguous and would not be able to express the contrast the sentence expresses.  

5. 人間 ( にんげん ) の 気持 ( きも ) ちがお 前 ( まえ ) には 分 ( わ ) かるものか。
You would understand what people are feeling?

Particle Note: The use of ものか is very emphatic, which matches well with the emphasis provided by には. The flipping of constituents so that お前には is not at the front of the sentence is so that が can be interpreted as being the exhaustive-listing function.

6. 俺 ( おれ ) にはわかるさ。
I can tell.

7. ちなみに、 私 ( わたし ) はドイツ 語 ( ご ) が 分 ( わ ) かるから、 歌詞 ( かし ) の 意味 ( いみ ) も 理解 ( りかい ) できます。
Incidentally, because I understand German, I can also understand the meaning of the lyrics.

Particle Note: There is no heightened sense of emotion packed into this sentence, so there is no reason to use に（は） after 私 even if it would still be grammatically correct. The same can be said for Ex. 8.

8. イルカは 人間 ( にんげん ) の 言葉 ( ことば ) が 分 ( わ ) かるのだろうか。
I wonder if dolphins can understand human speech?

9. 人気 ( にんき ) があるのは 分 ( わ ) かるが、 微妙 ( びみょう ) だね。
I understand that it’s possible, but it’s iffy, huh.

Particle Note: In this example, the は after the nominal phrase 人気があるの is the contrastive は, which means that the sentence implies that the speaker may not understand other aspects of the discussion at hand.

10. 味 ( あじ ) の 違 ( ちが ) いは 分 ( わ ) かるんですか。
You understand the difference in taste?

Particle Note: The は of this sentence should not be interpreted as the contrastive は.

11. 君 ( きみ ) に 俺 ( おれ ) の 何 ( なに ) が 分 ( わ ) かる？
What about me do you understand?

Particle Note: The particle は doesn’t follow the particle に in this sentence because there is no reason for the speaker to contrast the target agent’s (you) understanding of himself with another person.

12. 私 ( わたし ) ｛に・が｝わかるように 教 ( おし ) えてください。
Please teach so that [it can be understood by me/I can understand it].

Particle Note: The use of the particle が should invoke the exhaustive-listing interpretation in this sentence, but that doesn’t have to be the case, especially if the object of discussion—the it—isn’t at the forefront of the speaker’s mind. In which case, が would just be marking the subject of a dependent clause like it usually does. However, if the exhaustive-listing meaning isn’t intended, the choice of が creates unnecessary grammatical ambiguity that is solved by using に.  

13. 本当 ( ほんとう ) の 私 ( わたし ) は 誰 ( だれ ) にもわからない。そして、 本当 ( ほんとう ) のあなた｛を・が｝ 私 ( わたし ) ｛が・には｝わかることもできない。
The true me is understood by no one. And, I cannot understand the true you.

Particle Notes:
1. The は after 私 is the contrastive は, meaning that 私 is still the object of わからない. 
2. Provided を marks 本当のあなた as the object, the following 私 would typically be marked with が as it is established via を that わかる is being treated as a typical transitive verb. には can still be used to mark 私 in this situation, but the sentence would go from sounding like “It is indeed I who doesn’t understand the true you” to “Others may, but it is not I who understands the true you.” 
3. If 本当のあなた is properly marked with が, then には ought to be used. This is because the も preceding できない technically deletes another instance of が, and although the exhaustive-listing function of が does allow for two が in a clause, Japanese never allows three instances of が in a single clause.

14. 彼 ( かれ ) （に）もわかっているはずだ。
He should also understand (the situation).

Particle Note: Without context, simply using も would cause the sentence to be ambiguous, making 彼 the object of understanding. This is why when も is used, に is frequently employed.   

The verb 聞こえる is often mistaken as a potential verb, and although it is translatable as “can hear,” it merely describes the natural phenomenon of something being audible, making it fundamentally different from both 聞ける and 聞くことが出来る, which are true potential expressions in the sense that they imply volition over the exercise of said ability.

The basic patterns of a sentence with 聞こえる is as follows:

①XにはYが聞こえる
②XはYが聞こえる
③XにはYがZ（のよう）に聞こえる

①② can be translated as “Y is audible to X/Y can be heard by X.” Typically, the “X” element is not ever stated with 聞こえる in patterns for ①②. When it is, though, the first pattern is overwhelmingly the most used of the two. The second pattern would be limited to non-emphatic instances in which one wishes to contrast what’s audible to oneself with others (Ex. 24).

③ means “Y sounds like Z to X.” The reason why it has a difference in meaning is because there’s an additional argument (element) added to the sentence, and with it a different function of に comes into play, which can also be potentially modified by は. Whereas the に that follows X is the agent-marking function, the に after Z indicates an (indirect) object of comparison. Z can also be an adjective or verb instead of a noun, in which case it must be followed by よう so it can be treated as a nominal phrase.

Although Japanese often drops elements out of a sentence if they're deemed unimportant or understood, if you see a sentence that only has 〇〇が〇〇に聞こえる, it’s going to be ③. However, just 〇〇に（は）聞こえる could have either interpretation depending on the context. One way to differentiate Xに（は）聞こえる and Zに（は）聞こえる is that X must be a sentient agent (human or personified non-human), whereas Z is usually some physical/abstract entity.

Examples 

15. 彼 ( かれ ) らは 私 ( わたし ) に 聞 ( き ) こえるように 悪口 ( わるくち ) を 言 ( い ) っていた。
They were speaking bad of me to where I could hear them.

Particle Note: There is no logical reason to think that “they” were speaking ill of the speaker in a way that could be heard by him/her but not others. Although に is the proper particle after 私, it could be seen replaced with が, especially if one wishes to strongly emphasis the exhaustive-listing of oneself—italicizing of “I.”

16. 若 ( わか ) い 人 ( ひと ) には 聞 ( き ) こえる 音 ( おと ) が、 私 ( わたし ) （に）は 聞 ( き ) こえない。
I can't hear sounds that can be heard by young people.

Particle Note: For parallelism, には would be the preferred choice after 私. However, there is nothing wrong with just using は. This would be indicative of the spoken language where people are not always going to necessarily stay grammatically consistent.

17. 大人 ( おとな ) には 聞 ( き ) こえず、 若 ( わか ) い 人 ( ひと ) にしか 聞 ( き ) こえない 不思議 ( ふしぎ ) な 音 ( おと ) 、それがモスキート 音 ( おん ) です！
A strange noise that cannot be heard but by the ears of young people and not adults, and that is the mosquitone!

Particle Note: It’s important to understand that しか cancels out は, meaning that it should be viewed as a derivative. しか and ～ない, and this agreement is what cancels out は. は and しか are incidentally both bound particles.

18. 人間 ( にんげん ) には 聞 ( き ) こえないけれど 犬 ( いぬ ) には 聞 ( き ) こえる 音 ( おと ) というのは、 実際 ( じっさい ) には 存在 ( そんざい ) する。
There are, in fact, sounds that can be heard by dogs but not by people.

Particle Note: The には after 実際 is simply the emphatic は after the adverb 実際に.

19. ｛ 夏 ( なつ ) ｝には 蝉 ( せみ ) の 声 ( こえ ) が 聞 ( き ) こえる。
The buzz of cicadas can be heard in the summer.

Particle Note: This example is meant to remind you that には could simply emphatically denote temporal setting. This can ascertained from には not being attached to a sentient agent (people/personified non-humans).

20. 夫 ( おっと ) が 私 ( わたし ) に 聞 ( き ) こえるような 小声 ( こごえ ) で 私 ( わたし ) の 悪口 ( わるくち ) を 言 ( い ) うのが 苦痛 ( くつう ) です。
It’s painful that my husband insults me in a whisper where I can hear him.

Particle Note: Understand that the 私に in this sentence is in a dependent clause modifying よう which then modifies 小声, which is why が is used beforehand with 夫.

21. 右耳 ( みぎみみ ) が 聞 ( き ) こえるようになった。
I’ve become able to hear out of my right ear.

Particle Note: The use of に（は） would change the meaning to “I then became able to hear it in my right ear.” This sentence exemplifies how ② can be altered to Xが聞こえる, leaving out “Y” entirely. Of course, Xは聞こえる is possible as well.

22. 突然聞 ( とつぜんき ) こえなくなったあと、 耳 ( みみ ) は 聞 ( き ) こえるようになったが、 耳鳴 ( みみな ) りが 残 ( のこ ) った。
After suddenly becoming unable to hear, my ears became able to hear to again, but severe tinnitus remained.

Particle Note: The topic of this sentence is the speaker’s ears, which is why there is no 私は or the like that accompanies the first clause. If it were stated, it would be accompanied with 耳が, creating 私は耳が〇〇. Although this is an example of ②, this is not XやYが聞こえる. Rather, it’s XはXが聞こえる. Although the nouns for X are different, they are parts of a single entity.

23. 僕 ( ぼく ) の 耳 ( みみ ) が 聞 ( き ) こえにくいと 分 ( わ ) かるなら、 僕 ( ぼく ) ｛が・に｝ 聞 ( き ) こえるように 話 ( はな ) すのが 筋 すじ じゃないか。
If you understand that I’m hard of hearing, then wouldn’t it be logical to speak such that [I can hear what’s being said/what’s being said can be heard by me]?

Particle Note: The が after 耳 shouldn't be replaced, but because the use of が after 僕 may imply the exhaustive-listing function,the typical particle choice there would be に.

24. （ 私 ( わたし ) は） 今変 ( いまへん ) な 音 ( おと ) が 聞 ( き ) こえました。
I heard a strange noise/sound just now.

25. めっちゃ 働 ( はたら ) いているように 聞 ( き ) こえるけれど、 実際 ( じっさい ) のところ、ダレて 仕事 ( しごと ) （を）してる。
It may sound like I’m working real hard, but in actuality, I’m slacking at my job.

26. ずいぶん 成長 ( せいちょう ) が 早 ( はや ) いように 聞 ( き ) こえるかもしれないですね。
It might sound like growth has been quite fast, huh.

27. 嵐 ( あらし ) を 運 ( はこ ) んでくる 落雷 ( らくらい ) も、 南極 ( なんきょく ) の 氷 ( こおり ) が 砕 ( くだ ) ける 音 ( おと ) も、このコには、この 世界 ( せかい ) の 鼓動 ( こどう ) に 聞 ( き ) こえているのだと 思 ( おも ) う。
Lightning which carry storms, the sound of Antarctic ice breaking, they must sound like the heartbeat of this world to this kid.

Particle Note: The pattern of this sentence is YがXにはZに聞こえる. Don’t let the fact that the Y elements come before the X element confuse you.

Grammar Note: The use of ている emphasizes how the truth of the statement holds for more than just the present point in time and has been so for some period of time.

28. とても 日本語 ( にほんご ) には 聞 ( き ) こえないなあ。
It sounds absolutely nothing like Japanese.

29. 遠 ( とお ) くにいてもあなたの 声 ( こえ ) は 私 ( わたし ) にだけは 聞 ( き ) こえるの。
No matter if you are afar, your voice can only be heard by me.

Particle Notes:
1. The は after あなたの声 replaces the が that would typically follow the “Y” element to topicalize/emphasize it.
2. だけに（は） is also possible, but this would shift emphasis off 聞こえる to the noun phrase that precedes the combination particle, which would be 私 in this sentence. Although 私 is emphasized thanks to だけは, the presence of に helps bring a stronger emphasis between the agent and 聞こえる.

30. 日本 ( にっぽん ) の 三菱電機株式会社 ( みつびしでんきかぶしきがいしゃ ) が、ブラインドサッカーに 適応 ( てきおう ) する 指向性 ( しこうせい ) スピーカーの 開発 ( かいはつ ) を 進 ( すす ) めている。 位置 ( いち ) が 少 ( すこ ) しずれるだけで、 音 ( おと ) が 聞 ( き ) こえたり 聞 ( き ) こえなかったりするものだ。ピッチでは 音 ( おと ) は 聞 ( き ) こえないけれど、 観客席 ( かんきゃくせき ) だけには 聞 ( き ) こえるようにすることができる。
Japan’s Mitsubishi Corporation is developing a directional speaker adapted for blind soccer. Just by shifting direction slightly, sound can be heard or not heard. Although sound won’t be heard on the field, one can have it so that sound will only be heard in the spectator stands.

Particle Note:
1. The は after 音 in the third sentence replaces the が that would otherwise follow the “Y” element so that it can be topicalized and used as the “Y” element for the next clause without having to be restated.
2. だけに（は） emphasizes the distinctiveness of the person/people who are a part of the phenomenon described by 聞こえる, which in this sentence is 観客席. Although not a typical person, the people who sit in the stands are people.　

見える is also often mistaken as a potential verb, and although it is translatable as “can see,” it merely describes the natural phenomenon of something being visible, making it fundamentally different from both 見（ら）れる and 見ることが出来る.

The basic sentence patterns for 見える are as follows:

①XにはYが見える
②XはYが見える
③XにはYがZ（のよう）に見える。

The grammatical dynamics for 見える are the same as with 聞こえる. ①② are interpreted as “Y is visible to/can be seen by X” and ③ is interpreted as “Y looks/seems like Z to X.” The Z is an (indirect) object of comparison and can be made up of just a noun or with an adjective or verb that is then purposed into a nominal phrase with the help of よう. So for instance, 働いているように見える = “to seem like (one) is working.”

Of ① and ②, the latter is most common, with には only really explicitly marking the agent if there is a strong, emotional appeal being made (Exs. 31 and 32). To distinguish ①② from ③ when various elements may be missing, remember that X is always a topicalized argument (sentence element) that is a sentient agent (human or personified non-human). Z has no restriction as both people and non-human entities are frequently used as objects of comparison. However, Z must be directly followed by 見える for the comparison-marker function of に to be made clear.

Translation Note: There are two translations provided for each example. The only difference being showcased is the variation in the interpretation of が with 見える. 

Examples 

31. 信仰者 ( しんこうしゃ ) には 神 ( かみ ) が 見 ( み ) える 理由 ( りゆう ) は 何故 ( なぜ ) ですか。
i. Why is it that God is visible to believers? 
ii. Why is it that believers can see God?

32. 神 ( かみ ) が 信仰者 ( しんこうしゃ ) {にだけ（は）・だけに（は）｝ 見 ( み ) えるようにしているんでしょうか。
i. Is it that (they) are making it so that God is only visible to believers?
ii. Is it that (they) are making it so that only believers can see God?

Particle Note: だけに（は） is also possible, but this would shift emphasis off 見える to the noun phrase that precedes the combination particle, which is 信仰者 in this sentence. にだけ（は） emphasizes the distinctiveness in the phenomenon which is described by 見える, whereas だけに（は） emphasizes the distinctiveness of the person/people who are a part of the phenomenon described by 見える.　

33. お 前 ( まえ ) に 見 ( み ) えるか、 俺 ( おれ ) の 哀 ( かな ) しい 顔 ( かお ) が…
Can you see, my sad face…?

Particle Note: The sentence pattern here is a derivative of ①. There is some inversion in here, which is why the “Y” element appears after the verb. Although this means that the “X” element is right next to 見える, because it is お前, there really isn’t ambiguity here to confuse it with ③.

34. 動物 ( どうぶつ ) （に）は 幽霊 ( ゆうれい ) が 見 ( み ) えるのですか。
i. Can ghost be seen by animals?
ii. Can animals see ghosts?

Particle Note: The importance of being able to see spirits/ghosts can be deemed important enough to emphasize “animals” as the agent of 見える.

35. 視力 ( しりょく ) の 悪 ( わる ) い 人 ( ひと ) にしか 見 ( み ) えない 画像 ( がぞう ) をご 紹介 ( しょうかい ) していきます！
i. I’m going to introduce you to images that are invisible but to people whose eyesight is poor!
ii. I’m going to introduce you to images that only people with poor eyesight can see!

Particle Note: The fact that にしか appears in a dependent clause modifying 画像 indicates that 画像 is the “Y” element of ①. Furthermore, the use of しか emphasizes the fact that “X” is the agent of 見える.

36. この 手相 ( てそう ) の 持 ( も ) ち 主 ( ぬし ) （に）は 幽霊 ( ゆうれい ) が 見 ( み ) える。
i. Ghosts are visible to possessors of these palm lines.
ii. Possessors of these palm lines can see ghosts.

37. 昆虫 ( こんちゅう ) もカラスも 紫外線 ( しがいせん ) が 見 ( み ) える。
i. Ultra-violet rays are visible to even insects and crows.
ii. Even insects and crows can see ultra-violet rays.

Particle Note: As this is a generic statement concerning fact, there is no semantic reason for why 昆虫 and カラス to be marked with にも instead.

38. 実 ( じつ ) は、 犬 ( いぬ ) は 色 ( いろ ) が 見 ( み ) えるが、 色弱 ( しきじゃく ) の 人間 ( にんげん ) と 同 ( おな ) じ 程度 ( ていど ) に 見 ( み ) える。
i. As for dogs, colors are in fact visible to them, but only to the same degree as a person who has slight color-blindness.
ii. Dogs can in fact see color, but only to the same degree as a person who has slight color-blindness.

Particle Note: The に after 程度 functions as a comparison-marker. It can also be seen as being adverbial, creating a degree-adverb out of 色弱の人間と同じ程度.

39. 蜜蜂 ( みつばち ) （に）は 紫外線 ( しがいせん ) が 見 ( み ) え、それを 利用 ( りよう ) して 自分 ( じぶん ) の 好 ( この ) みの 花 ( はな ) を 見 ( み ) つけることができる。
i. Ultra-violet rays are visible to honeybees, and they can find their favorite flowers by utilizing them.
ii. Honeybees can see ultra-violet rays, and they can find their favorite flowers by utilizing them.

Particle Note: The use of には accounts for the agent of both 見える and 見つけることができる. Using it over は helps emphasize the uniqueness of honeybees being explained by both predicates.

40. 新 ( あたら ) しい 恐竜 ( きょうりゅう ) はアライグマに 見 ( み ) えるかもしれない。
A new dinosaur might look like a raccoon.

Particle Note: The は of this sentence actually mark the “Y” element of Pattern 3. The “X” would be an implied あなたには.

41. トムソンガゼルの 群 ( む ) れを 襲 ( おそ ) うクロコダイルたちが 完全 ( かんぜん ) に 化 ( ば ) け 物 ( もの ) にしか 見 ( み ) えない。
Crocodiles attacking a herd of Thomson’s gazelle just completely look like monsters.

Particle Note: Due to the elements in the sentence and word order, にしか is after the “Z” element and not the “X” element, like has been the case for other examples in this lesson.

42. 猫 ( ねこ ) には 人 ( ひと ) の 目 ( め ) に 見 ( み ) えない「あるもの」が 見 ( み ) えているらしい！
There appears to be a “certain something” not visible to the human eye that is visible to cats!

Particle Note: The phrase 目に見える means “visible to the eye.” The use of には after 猫 establishes grammatical parallelism with 目, as both are agents. 猫 is the agent of 見えている. 見えている is used instead of見える to emphasize the ability cats (unintentionally) utilize that isn’t accessible to humans. 

43. 人間 ( にんげん ) のようなものに 化 ( ば ) けてはいるが、とても 人間 ( にんげん ) には 見 ( み ) えない。
Although it has shape-changed to something like a person, it hardly looks like a person.

44. 目 ( め ) が 見 ( み ) えない 状態 ( じょうたい ) でメイクするなんてできません。
I couldn’t possibly do my make-up blind.

Particle Note: This example demonstrates how ② can be modified to Xが（Yが）見える, especially when the “Y” element is irrelevant, such as is the case here. Furthermore, が is obligatory here because it is in a dependent clause modifying the noun 状態.

45. 今夜 ( こんや ) は 十六夜 ( いざよい ) の 月 ( つき ) 、 家 ( いえ ) の 近 ( ちか ) くでは 見 ( み ) えるかな。
Tonight is the sixteenth-day moon; I wonder if I can see it near my/the house.

Particle Notes:
1. This sentence reminds us not to forget other particle expressions that could appear before 見える. では shows the location of 見える and has nothing to do with the “X” or “Y” elements of the basic sentence patterns with 見える. The same can be said for 聞こえる.
2. The “Y” element of the sentence is 十六夜の月. The “X” element is an understood 私. However, the thing topicalized in the sentence is 今夜, the time which the phenomenon of 見える is to potentially occur.

In the sense of “to have” as in indicating possession, there are two basic sentence patterns with ある and いる, which are as follows:

①Xに（は）Yが｛ある・いる｝
②XはYが｛ある・いる｝

The use of には emphasizes the agent of possession, in other words, who is doing the possessing. “X” must be a human agent or a personified non-human agent. Both ①② are equally common with ある. For when the object of possession is people, いる almost always refer to having family members. In this situation, the agent can either take には or は. Of course, if the exhaustive-listing function of が needs to be employed, it too can follow “X.”

As we learned in Lesson 21, the possession of other animate, living things such as pets is usually not expressed with いる. However, when it is, には is used but with words such as うち and 我が家 which both refers to oneself and one’s household.

Particle Notes:
1. The use of に to mark the agent with ある and いる also calls upon に’s function of indicating where something exists, which is why には is so emphatic here.
2. に isn’t usually by itself to mark the agent with these verbs except when it’s in a dependent clause with just the “X” element that modifies the “Y” element. 

Examples 

46. うちにはお 金 ( かね ) が 無 ( な ) いから。
‘Cause I don’t have money.

47. 私 ( わたし ) たちには、 禁酒中 ( きんしゅちゅう ) 、ぼーっと 酔 ( よ ) っ 払 ( ぱら ) っていたころでは 考 ( かんが ) えられないほど、 時間 ( じかん ) があるんです。
When we’re abstaining from alcohol, we have so much time that we couldn’t have ever thought when we’d be spaced out drunk.

Particle Note: The adverbial phrase ending with the particle ほど does not interfere with the basic sentence pattern XにはYがある. It is just one of two adverb phrases in between Xには and Yが, the other being 禁酒中.

48. 自分 ( じぶん ) にはお 金 ( かね ) があるのに、なぜ 周 ( まわ ) りの 人 ( ひと ) はお 金 ( かね ) を 持 ( も ) っていないだろう。
Why is it that the people around me don’t have money when one oneself does?

Particle Note: The reason for why には doesn’t follow 周りの人 is because 持っている is not a stative-transitive predicate. Although it expresses the continuous state of having money, it also implies there is an active volition behind the agent carrying money around, which is contrary to ある, which implies that the possession in question is just a natural circumstance.

49. 大学生 ( だいがくせい ) は 一般的 ( いっぱんてき ) には 時間 ( じかん ) があるように 見 ( み ) えるが、サークル 活動 ( かつどう ) やバイトなど 様々 ( さまざま ) なことがあり、 意外 ( いがい ) と 忙 ( いそが ) しい。
It may seem that college students, generally, have time, but they are surprisingly quite busy with various things such as club activities and part-time jobs.

Particle Notes:
1. The use of には after 大学生 would be strange as the clause it’s in is just a generic statement. In such situations, the “agent” of possession should just be marked by は and not には.
2. Note that the agent of the second が phrase in the second clause is the same as the first.
3. The には after 一般的 is simply the adverbial form of 一般的だ (to be typical) followed by the contrast-marker は.

50. 特捜班 ( とくそうはん ) にはフランス 語 ( ご ) が 分 ( わ ) かるメンバーが 誰 ( だれ ) もいないんだ！
There’s not a single member in the squad that understands French!

Particle Note: 特捜班 can be treated as a location of affiliation and/or a sentient, human agent of possession of people, which is why it is marked には. Using は here would be ungrammatical.

51. うちには 犬 ( いぬ ) がいます。
i. I have a dog.
ii. [I/we] have a dog at home.

Particle Note: The translation that best reflects the particle grammar of the sentence is translation ii.

52. 我 ( わ ) が 家 ( や ) は 犬 ( いぬ ) がいるから、 余計掃除 ( よけいそうじ ) するようになった。
Our house has begun to excessively clean because we have a dog.

Particle Note: This is an instance where いる can show possession of a non-human object (pet)  with the agent being marked by は. For one, 我が家 is a personified noun referring to both oneself and one’s household. Two, 我が家 is both the topic of the first clause and the second clause. Although it can be viewed as the subject and agent of both clauses, the second clause is not a stative-transitive predicate, and because には doesn’t mark the agent of a regular transitive predicate, using it would be ungrammatical here.

53. 人生 ( じんせい ) は 犬 ( いぬ ) がいることによって 美 ( うつく ) しく 輝 ( かがや ) いて 見 ( み ) える！
Life seems to shine so beautifully by having a dog.

Particle Note: This sentence demonstrates that you mustn’t ignore independent-dependent clause boundaries. This is not an example of ② because 犬がいる is in a dependent clause modifying こと. However, this is an example of いる indicating the possession of pets, which is common with こと with the “X” element being omitted as an understood—oneself and/or people in general.

54. 自分 ( じぶん ) にしかないものは 何 ( なん ) だろう。
What is it that only I myself have?

55. 自分 ( じぶん ) にないものを 数 ( かぞ ) えるより、 自分 ( じぶん ) にあるものを 考 ( かんが ) えましょう。
Rather than count what you don’t have, count what you do have. 

As we learned in Lesson 83, 出来る is the potential verb of する and is the representative verb of potential in general in Japanese. The agent of a potential sentence can be marked with に（は） so long as the potential phrase in question can be perceived as being a natural phenomenon. Meaning, when you see に（は）, the sense of “volition” that may or may not otherwise be present becomes voided out. If cancelling out the nuance of volition is not possible, then so too is the use of には in that circumstance. To demonstrate this, consider Ex. 56.  

56. 私 ( わたし ) （には ??・は 〇）テニスができますよ。
I can play tennis!

Although it is not entirely ungrammatical to use には to mark 私 as the agent of this sentence due to できる being a stative-transitive predicate at its basic understanding, it is incredibly unnatural here because the strong volitional nuance of the transitiveする.

Though at this point it goes without saying, there are two basic sentence patterns involving potential phrases, which are as follows:

①Xに（は）Yができる
②XはYができる

As for ①, に is typically only seen when in a dependent clause were “X” is only present to directly modify “Y,” or when “Y” and “X” flip places. Having に directly next to the predicate helps emphasize the agent to the point that は isn’t needed unless one wishes to also contrast the agent with other people. Otherwise, には is typically seen. ① is frequently employed when showing the inherent abilities of one agent over that of another (Exs. 59 and 61). Another reason for using には is when は is used as the contrast-marker and not as the topic marker.

As for ②, this is the most common pattern for potential phrases because most people generally imply volitional control of the execution of their abilities. As we have already seen with Ex. 56, the presence of this nuance will cause には to sound unnatural. Because we have already seen plenty of examples of ② in previous lessons, all the examples below will be of ①.

Examples 

57. 私 ( わたし ) にできることはなんだろう。
i. What is it that I can do?
ii. What is it that can be done by me?

58. 私 ( わたし ) にはできることとできないことがあります。
i. There are things that I can and cannot do.
ii. There are things that can and cannot be done by me.

Particle Note: This example is a misnomer as には is used with the predicate ある. However, the presence of できる in the sentence, emphasizes the necessity of には in the speaker’s mind. Simply using は would cause the sentence to sound rather unnatural.

59. 人 ( ひと ) には 出来 ( でき ) ないが、 神 ( かみ ) には 出来 ( でき ) る。
It cannot be done by man, but it can be done by God.

60. 何 ( なん ) でこんな 馬鹿偉 ( ばかえら ) そうな 事 ( こと ) がお 前 ( まえ ) に 書 ( か ) けるんや！
How is it that you can write such absurdly cocky crap like this?!

Particle Note: Topicalizing お前 and having it come at the front of the sentence to make it follow ② would ruin the chastising tone. Although お前 could theoretically be marked by が with the exhaustive-listing function, the use of に is further enforced by the standard phenomenon of avoiding particle duplication in the same clause.

61. そりゃやれる 人 ( ひと ) にはやれるし、できない 人 ( ひと ) にはできないとしか 答 ( こた ) えようがない。
That's something that can be done by those capable of doing it, and the only answer is that it cannot be done by those incapable.

Particle Notes:

1. そりゃ is a contraction of それは. The それ is the “Y” element to やれる人にはやれる. It also happens to be “X” element to ない in the second clause, but it’s important to note that the purely existential meaning of ある, with which there isn’t an agent/owner to the existence.
2. Just as に is common when “X” and “Y” are flipped in ①, the same can be said for には. Additionally, the contrast-marker は is obligatory here due to the contrast being made between やれる人 and できない人.

62. どっちにしろ、 日本語 ( にほんご ) にはない 言葉 ( ことば ) だから 日本人 ( にほんじん ) には 発音 ( はつおん ) できないんだよね。
Either way, since it’s a word that isn’t in Japanese, Japanese people can't pronounce it, no?

Particle Note: The “Y” element here is 日本語にはない言葉. It is not repeated after 日本人には due to the lack of “it” in Japanese grammar.

63. もはや、エラーコードを 人間 ( にんげん ) に 読 ( よ ) める 形式 ( けいしき ) に 変換 ( へんかん ) する 必要 ( ひつよう ) はない。
No longer is there a need to convert error codes into expressions that are human-readable.

Particle Note: This sentence demonstrates how ① is the base pattern of potential expressions. Although using が instead is possible here, because the conditions for using に are all met, and because it is the base pattern, に is the preferred particle choice.

64. 暗号 ( あんごう ) とは、 解読方法 ( かいどくほうほう ) を 知 ( し ) らない 人 ( ひと ) には 解読 ( かいどく ) できないものだ。
An encryption is something that cannot be deciphered by someone who doesn’t know how to decode it.

65. 食 ( た ) べなければならないのは 人間 ( にんげん ) には 作 ( つく ) れない 物質 ( ぶっしつ ) があるからです。
We must eat because there are substances that cannot be created in people.

Particle Note: には is used to contrast with how other organisms may very well be able to create substances that the human body cannot.

66. それは 我々 ( われわれ ) には 想像 ( そうぞう ) ができないような 苦 ( くる ) しみだろう。
That is surely a hardship that is unimaginable to us.

Particle Notes:
1. With する verbs, が is often inserted between the base-noun and できる, making the base-noun the object of できる. When this happens, the presence of が after “X” for the exhaustive-listing function becomes less likely.
2. Because special emphasis is being placed on 我々 for being the agent of 想像ができない, simply marking the agent with は would be inappropriate, especially also given that the topic is already established as being それ.  

To bring this lesson to a conclusion, the last stative-transitive predicate that we will learn about will be the very one used as an example in the opening: 要る. As we know, this is the basic verb for “to need.” As has been the case for the other verbs, 要る too has two basic sentence patterns:

①Xに（は）Yが要る
②XはYが要る

Although ① is inherently the base pattern, ② is most commonly used at a ratio of ten-to-one. Whenever the agent of “to need” is actually present, に will always be optional. には is used to emphasis the relation between the agent and 要る. As is to be expected, XにYが要る is exceedingly rare and would only be seen in dependent clauses in which “X” directly modifies “Y” (Ex. 70) or when “Y” and “X” flip places followed by some emphatic sentence ending (Ex. 71).

Examples 

67. お 年寄 ( としよ ) り（に）はお 金 ( かね ) が 要 ( い ) らないんじゃないか？
Don’t old people not need money?

68. 息子 ( むすこ ) には、お 金 ( かね ) は 要 ( い ) らないからその 代 ( か ) わり 旅行 ( りょこう ) に 連 ( つ ) れて 行 ( い ) ってって 頼 ( たの ) んでるのさ。
I ask my son to take me on trips instead since I don’t need money.